1. Introduction to 1 Enoch

What is now known as 1 Enoch is actually a collection of texts written by Jewish authors from different historical periods. What they have in common is that they have all been attributed to the antediluvian Enoch in some way (Gen 5:18–24). Enoch, the seven patriarch from creation, was a righteous man living in the wicked, antediluvian period, whom God “took” from the world after living for 365 years. It should also be noted, however, that there are some traditions related to Noah embedded in 1 Enoch (see 6–11; 54:7–55:2; 60; 65–69:25; 106–108) (The author of the Book of Jubilees refers to a book written by Noah [Jub. 10:13; 21:10] [see 1Q19].) At some point, these miscellaneous texts were collected together, and organized into five “books”: 1 Enoch 1–36; 37–71; 72–82; 83–90; 91–108. These “books,” however, are not unitary works, but themselves are composite. Moreover, many of the individual units within the “books” show signs of being composite, conglomerates of different traditions. As one might expect, the tradition-history of these texts is fraught with uncertainty. 1 Enoch exists as an Ethiopic translation of a Greek translation. What the original language(s) of the texts that constitute 1 Enoch has been disputed. The discovery of Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch, however, makes it almost certain that 1 Enoch 1-36 and 72-107, at least, were written in Aramaic. (It has also been argued that originally 1 Enoch was composed in both Aramaic and Hebrew. ) Aramaic fragments of all sections of 1 Enoch, with the exception of the Similitudes of Enoch (37–71), have been discovered at Qumran; in addition, parts of 1 Enoch also survive in Greek and Latin translations.

Some light has been shed on the evolution of 1 Enoch and the dating of its various component parts by the Aramaic fragments that have turned up in cave four at Qumran. Eleven manuscripts are represented by the fragments from cave four. Seven of these are manuscripts contain portions of Books One, Four and Five of 1 Enoch and are given the designations 4QEn-a-g (4Q201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 212). 4QEn-a (4Q201) is the oldest of the manuscripts, dating from the early second century BCE, while 4QEn-b dates from the middle and 4QEn-f from the late second century BCE. 4QEn-e was written in the first half of the first century BCE, 4QEn-g in the middle and 4QEn-c in the last half of the first century BCE. 4QEn-a is roughly a contemporary copy of 4QEn-c. Four of these seven manuscripts contain only one book of 1 Enoch: 4QEn-a and 4QEn-b contain portions of Book One, 4QEn-f has a portion of Book Four and 4QEn-g is from Book Five. 4QEn-d and 4QEn-e, however, combine Books One and Book Four, and 4QEn-c has portions from Books One, Four and Five. The fact that in three cases more than one of the five books were on a single scroll indicates that as early as the first half of the first century BCE (4QEn-e) there were already collections of Enochic material.

No fragments of Book Three of 1 Enoch, the Book of the Heavenly Lights, have been found among the texts found in cave four at Qumran. Rather; what has turned up is fragments from a much longer work that probably has some connection to Book Three; this text has been given the title of Astronomical Work. The four fragments of this longer work are designated as 4QEnastr-a-d (4Q208–209), and did not share a scroll with any part of 1 Enoch. The oldest of the four copies is 4QEnastr-a (4Q208) dating from c. 200 BCE, while the remaining three copies are from between 50 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era. It is probable that Book Three of 1 Enoch is a condensation of this longer work.

Not a single fragment of Book Two of 1 Enoch, the Similitudes of Enoch, has been discovered at Qumran. Six copies of another text that is not a part of 1 Enoch, however, has turned up in caves one, four and six, which has been named the Book of the Giants. Although very fragmentary, this text seems to describe events in the lives of the offspring of the Watchers, identified by name, before their destruction in the flood. Enoch is mentioned a few times in the fragments and is identified as the author of the text in one of the fragments: “Copy of the second tablet of the l[etter...] written by the hand of Enoch, the celebrated scribe [...].” In addition, the Watcher Shem(i)hazah is referred to in connection with Enoch; the context, though incomplete, seems to be the Watchers' request that Enoch write a petition to God on their behalf in order to obtain forgiveness (4Q203 frag. 8 4-5). This suggests that this text is another example of Enochic literature from the second-Temple period. Moreover, according to Milik, the scribe who wrote 4QEn-c (4Q204) is the same who wrote 4QEnGiants-a, and “The quality of the skin and its state of preservation, the arrangement of the text and its orthography ... are identical in the two manuscripts” (The Books of Enoch, 310; see 57–58). This leads to the conclusion that 4QEnGiants-a may actually have been part of 4QEn-c, in which case, the Book of Giants was a part of the Enochic collection represented by 4QEn-c. It is Milik’s hypothesis that the Book of the Giants was the original second Book of 1 Enoch, but was much later in the Common Era displaced by the Similitudes of Enoch.

It should be noted that Jude quotes from the Book of the Watchers in his letter, which is included as part of the New Testament: “It was also about these [the wicked] that Enoch, in the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied saying, ‘See, the Lord is coming with ten thousands of his holy ones to execute judgment on all, to convict everyone of all the deeds of ungodliness that they have committed in such an ungodly way, and of the harsh things that ungodly sinners have spoken against him’” (Jude 14 = 1 Enoch 1:9). In addition, the author of the early Christian text known as Letter of Barnabas quotes from 1 Enoch three times, in one case referring to it as "scripture" (4:3, 16:5,6). This seems to indicate that the collection of texts known as 1 Enoch had some measure of authority in the early church.

• 4QEn^a (4Q201)

2. Summary of 1 Enoch

2.1. Book One (The Book of Watchers) (1-36)

Based on the Greek text of Syncellus, the title of Book One is “The first book of Enoch concerning the Watchers,” which accurately describes the contents of this book. The Book of Watchers is the best attested portion of 1 Enoch, being found in each of the five Aramaic manuscripts found in cave four at Qumran and much of it being preserved in Greek translation. The oldest Aramaic text from cave 4, 4QEn-a, which contains sections of 1 Enoch 1–12, has been dated paleographically to first half of the second century BCE. Moreover, Milik produces evidence that this manuscript was copied from a model from the third century. If Milik is correct, this would mean that at least some of 1 Enoch already existed in the middle of the third century (The Books of Enoch, 141). At any rate, this much is clear: since there are no explicit references to the persecution of Antiochus IV and the desecration of the Temple, it is probable that this text dates from before 168 BCE. Literarily, Book One of 1 Enoch can be divided into three sections: 1–5, 6–16 and 17–36. There is, however, a lack of consensus concerning the source-critical analysis of 1 Enoch 1–36 and its redactional history. Although all agree that Book One is composite, there is no unanimity on the details of its compositeness and its literary evolution. It is advisable, therefore, not to base any conclusions on hypothetical source-critical or tradition-critical reconstructions.

2.1.1. 1 Enoch 1-5

It is generally recognized that 1 Enoch 1–5 now provides an introduction to 1 Enoch as a whole, since a major theme of this anthology is final judgment. More immediately, however, it serves to introduce the Book of Watchers (1-36), as the many parallels between 1 Enoch 1-5 and 6-36 indicate. There are five literary units in this text: superscription (1:1), introduction (1:2-3b), theophany for judgment (1:3c–9), accusation based on the “obedience” of nature (2:1–5:4) and consequences of judgment (5:5-9). 1 Enoch 1-5 is a prophetic oracle of eschatological judgment given through Enoch for the twofold purpose of warning sinners and comforting the righteous in the face of looming judgment. The sinners are addressed directly, in the second person, whereas the righteous are referred to in the third person.

Those who have nothing to fear at the great judgment are the righteous and the elect: "But with the righteous he will make peace, and he will protect the elect and have mercy upon them (1:8; see 5:4). The righteous and  the elect denote the same group of people, those who are obedient  to God. The phrase “to make peace with them” does not imply former hostility, but is a soteriological term, meaning that God will eschatologically bless or reward.  The destiny of the elect is further described in 5:7: "But to the elect there will be light, joy and peace, and they shall inherit the earth." To receive light, joy and peace is to be the recipient of eschatological salvation.” The elect shall live out the number of the days of their lives on the earth (5:9).

Those who ought to fear the great judgment are the wicked, for God, accompanied by his holy ones, "will destroy all the ungodly and convict all flesh of the works of their ungodliness" (1:9). Unlike the rest of God’s creation, wicked human beings have not done God’s will (2-5). Those who "have not done all the commandments of the Lord" (5:4) must bear the consequences of this decision. They shall receive no mercy, but be destroyed and removed from the earth (5:5).

2.1.2. 1 Enoch 6-16

This portion of the Book of the Watchers combines the tradition about the fall of the Watchers (6–11) with Enoch’s efforts on their behalf to obtain a pardon for their transgressions (12–16). It is common to identify these two portions of the text as once originally independent sources. It has been argued, for instance, argues that 1 Enoch 6–11 is actually part of what is called a “Book of Noah,” other portions of which are found in 1 Enoch 54:7–55:2; 60; 65–69:25 and 106–107. The basis of this judgment is the fact that, in 1 Enoch 6–11, Noah is the focus of the narrative, whereas outside of these chapters the narrative focus is on Enoch. (In 1 Enoch 12–16, the Watchers are brought into direct contact with Enoch for the first time; this group was previously mentioned in passing in 1 Enoch 1:5.) A redactor at some time interpolated portions of an original Book of Noah into certain Enoch texts. It must be noted, however, that as early as the composition of 4QEn-a, in the early second century BCE, 1 Enoch 6–11 was already part of a larger text that included 1 Enoch 12-16.

A. 1 Enoch 6-11

1 Enoch 6-11 is a haggadic elaboration on Gen 6-9, especially the account of the “sons of God” in Gen 6:1-4 followed by the flood in Gen 6:5-13. (The genre could also be called that of rewritten Bible. ) This section describes how angels called Watchers produced giant offspring by procreating with human women—against God’s will.  These Watchers also imparted to human beings fordidden knowledge and skills. The giants originating from the angelic-human union shed much blood on the earth. Michael, Surafel, and Gabriel hear the cries of the oppressed and the dead from earth and report to the Most High the destruction wreaked by the giants and the corrupt state of humanity (The Aramaic fragments from cave four have: Michael, Sariel, Raphael and Gabriel.) Noah is then instructed to build an ark. Raphael is told to bind Asa’el , who is thrown into the darkness, there to await judgment. Gabriel is ordered to destroy the children of the Watchers, whereas Michael is instructed to bind the Watchers for seventy generations until the final judgment. There follows a description of eschatological judgment and the establishment of the righteous on earth. The point is that eschatological judgment is foreshadowed by God’s judgment at time of the flood. Within 1 Enoch 6–11, scholars have long identified two strands of tradition that have been interwoven. The longest was a narrative focusing on Shemhazah and other Watchers who had sexual relations with human women, whereas the other concerned how the angel Asa’el corrupted humanity by disclosing forbidden knowledge. When the two accounts were combined, the result was some narrative incongruities. There is some disagreement, however, on the details concerning which sections of 1 Enoch 6–11 belong to which source.

B . 1 Enoch 12-16

Enoch first appears in the composite narrative of 1 Enoch 6-16 at 12:3, which serves to incorporate the narrative of the sin of the Watchers into the Enochic tradition. Enoch, who has ascended to heaven and enters the heavenly temple, is assigned the task of notifying the Watchers that, because of what they did, they will have no peace or forgiveness (12:5). The Watchers must also witness the destruction of their children, which will cause them much grief. (According to Jub. 4:20–23, Enoch was taken at the age of sixty-five, after he begat Methuselah. He then spent six jubilees (294 years) with the angels. This may be an interpretation of Gen 5:22: “Enoch walked with God three hundred years” [Black, The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch, 141]. At this time, he bore witness against the Watchers, a narrative element not found in the biblical account.) Upon hearing their sentence, the Watchers become frightened, and ask Enoch to intercede for them. Because he is a scribe (12:4), they want Enoch to write a memorial prayer of forgiveness, which Enoch does. He then receives visions—including one in which he was in the throne room of God—in response to the request of the Watchers for forgiveness.  Enoch is told that there can be no forgiveness for the Watchers.

Even though the progeny of the Watchers are destroyed, their spirits survive to afflict and harass Noah’s descendents leading them astray until the great judgment (15–16). Since they had a terrestrial origin, the spirits of the Nephilim must remain on earth, where they are known as “powerful spirits on the earth” and “evil spirits” (15:8-10). Presumably, these spirits will, not only harm human beings, but attempt to lead them astray, away from obedience to God, as is stated in other sources.

2.1.3. 1 Enoch 17-36

Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch 17-36 form part of in 4QEn-c, which seems to have contained all of Book One, the Book of Giants (4QEnGiants-a), Book Four and Book Five. This section of the Book of the Watchers contains accounts of the patriarch Enoch’s angelically accompanied journeys to places in the cosmos normally inaccessible to human beings. He sees many amazing sights, and learns of the inner workings of the cosmos. 1 Enoch 17–36 consists of three units: Enoch’s first journey to the west (17–19); a list of the archangels (20); and Enoch’s second journey (21–36). On his first journey to the west, after seeing the throne of God (18:6-9), he sees a great abyss with pillars of fire beyond the ends of the earth, where the heavens come to an end. (Even though 1 Enoch 18:12 follows upon 18:11 in 4QEn-c 1 8:27-30, it is probable that 19:1-2 has been displaced and should follow 18:11 as its completion.) On his second journey Enoch travels to the west again (21–25). He sees the place the imprisonment of seven stars according to their number of sins; going further he comes to the prison house of the fallen angels (21). He also sees the place where the souls of the dead, both righteous and wicked, remain until the judgment (22). Moving on, Enoch comes to a tall mountain, one of seven mountains, situated in the center of the other six. Michael explains to Enoch that on the summit of this mountain is the throne upon which God will sit when he descends to visit the earth in goodness (25:3). Enoch also sees a fragrant tree, reserved for the righteous after judgment. God will plant it upon the holy place in the direction of the house of the Lord; the elect will eat of its fruit for life (24-25). Traveling to Jerusalem, the navel or center of the earth, Enoch sees there a valley that will be the place of final judgment for all the accursed of God (26–27). From there he travels east (28-32) and then journeys around the world (33-36) What connects 1 Enoch 17-36 with 1-16 is the theme of the Watchers, whom Enoch finds incarcerated on his journeys (19.1-3; 21.10).

This earring, from the Hellenistic or Roman period, was uncovered at site known as et-Tell (literally: the mound), which is probably the city of Bethsaida mentioned in the New Testament. The site, once situated on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, is now about two miles distant from it.

 2.2. Book Two (The Book of the Similitudes [or Parables] of Enoch) (37-71)

Since no evidence of it has been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, some have concluded that the Similitudes of Enoch was composed after the demise of Qumran community in 68 CE; if so, then it is possible that it has been influenced by the Christian son of man tradition, since the son of man is central to the messianic teaching of the Similitudes of Enoch. The most extreme version of this is Milik's view that the Similitudes of Enoch is a Christian work composed in Greek in the third century CE and inserted into 1 Enoch in the place of the Book of Giants (The Books of Enoch, 89-96). It is a fallacy, however, to assume that a late date for the Similitudes of Enoch means that it is a Christian composition (see M.A. Knibb, "The Date of the Parables of Enoch: A Critical Review," NTS 25 [1978-79] 345-59). The fact that there are no obviously Christian ideas in this text suggests that, even if composed in the Common Era, the text known as the Similitudes of Enoch is Jewish in origin. (To say that the text is Christian based on the occurrence of the son of man as eschatological figure is circular reasoning, for it assumes that such a notion originates with Jesus or the early church.) The other possible explanation for the fact that there is no trace of the Similitudes of Enoch among the many fragments of Enochic literature from Qumran is that the Qumran community either did not know of this text or knew of it but did not consider it worth including among its library holdings. On either hypothesis the absence of the Similitudes of Enoch from the Qumran texts is historically accidental and therefore has no significance for the dating and provenance of the text (see Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 221-23; J. C. Green and M. E. Stone, Greenfield, J.C. and Stone, M.E. “The Enochic Pentateuch and the Date of the Similitudes,” HTR 70 (1977) 51-65; id., “The Books of Enoch and the Traditions of Enoch.” Numen 26 [1979] 89-103; D. W. Suter, "Weighed in the Balance: The Similitudes of Enoch in Recent Discussion" RelSRev 7 [1981] 217-21.).

Another datum used in dating the Similtudes of Enoch is the reference to the Parthian invasion of Palestine in 1 Enoch 56:5-7. On the assumption that this passage refers to a historical event, it is possible to establish a terminus a quo, or earliest possible date, for the composition of the Similitudes of Enoch. Many scholars identify this event with the Parthian invasion of Palestine in 40 BCE (E. Sjöberg, Der Menschensohn im äthiopischen Henochbuch, 39; Greenfield and Stone, "The Enochic Pentateuch and the Date of the Similitudes"). If so, then the Similitudes of Enoch cannot be written before that date. But it is equally possible that 1 Enoch 56:5-7 actually refers to a future event and does not intend a historical event at all; after all, the Parthians would be an obvious choice to invade a Roman-controlled Palestine (Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 221-23).

In 1 Enoch 37-71 are found three “similitudes” (revelatory discourses) ascribed to Enoch. In the first similitude (38-44), it is revealed that there will be final judgment. Enoch sees the dwelling places of the holy one, and sees the Elect One, in whose day righteousness will prevail; the righteous and the elect will be before him forever.  In the second similitude (45-57), it is revealed that the Elect One will judge sinners. Heaven and earth are to be transformed, and sinners destroyed from the face of the earth. Enoch sees the Son of Man as prototype of the "Before-Time"; the Son of Man will appear on earth to overthrow the strong. In those days, the righteous shall pray for retribution and the blood of the righteous shall appear before God until judgment. It is said that Son of Man was given a name before creation.The Son of Man, also known as Messiah or Elect One, will judge human beings and angels. In the third similitude (58-69), more is revealed about final judgment. The righteous and elect ones will receive eternal life; God has been merciful to those who dwell on earth up to the judgment, but will bring reward and punishment. There will be a general resurrection in the day of the Elect One; the Elect One will judge by weighing deeds in the balance. The Elect One is also called Son of Man, who sits on the throne in glory; he was concealed from the beginning and preserved by the most High. On the day of judgment, the rulers will beg for mercy at the feet of the son of man; the oppressors of the children of God and the elect ones will be punished. The righteous will be saved and not see the faces of their oppressors. The fallen angels will also be judged.
 

2.3. Book Three (The Book of Heavenly Lights) (72-82)

The Book of Heavenly Luminaries is a sometimes confusing treatise on cosmic and astronomical phenomena, possibly dating from the third century BCE. As already indicated, 1 Enoch 72-82 is probably an abridgment of the much longer text, evidence of which has turned up in cave four at Qumran (4QEnastr-a-d [4Q208-209]); this is given the name Astronomical Work. In this section, Enoch tours the heavens guided by the archangel Uriel. The earth as depicted in this section of 1 Enoch is a flat disk over which is set a hemispherical heaven, which rests on the outer rim of the earth. The roundness of the sun and the moon is said to be like the roundness of heaven. Where heaven and earth meet (the horizon) are found twelve openings or "gates, six on the west and six on the east, through which the sun and the moon rise and set." The fact that the ratio of light to darkness changes seasonally is the result of the sun's egress through different gates. The sun is transported across the sky by a chariot blown by the winds; when it goes through the gate in the west (at sunset) it returns to the east by travelling northeast. In the winter solstice, the sun uses gate one, whereas the in summer solstice the sun uses gate six. For the vernal (spring) equinox the suns uses gate four and in the autumnal equinox gate three. It is also explained that God has organized the cosmos in such a way that human beings should use a solar calendar to keep time. The solar calendar consists of twelve months of thirty days: the sun twice goes through six gates in a year, each gate for thirty days (6 x 2 = 12 months). In addition, there are four intercalated days between the four seasons; this results in there being four units of thirteen weeks to which is added four more days to equal a total of 364 days. The moon likewise rides on a chariot across the arc of the sky blown by the winds; the moon receives its light from the sun. The phases of the moon are explained as the variable illumination of it by the sun depending on moon's angle to the sun. The moon's illuminated area is divided in fourteen parts. When the moon is waxing, each day one more of the fourteen parts becomes illuminated; the opposite occurs when the moon is waning. Waning takes fifteen days and waxing takes fourteen days; thus the lunar months consists of twenty-nine days (It seems that that he full moon takes place over a period of two days.) The sun and the moon are said to be the same size, even though the sun is seven times brighter than the full moon.

There are also twelve gates for the winds, which are unrelated to the twelve openings used by the sun and moon. Each of the twelves gates represents a direction of the wind, so that they are evenly spaced around the hemispherical dome of heaven. It is also revealed to Enoch that thousands of angels are appointed to control the workings of cosmos (75; 80). Angels are given responsibilty for all of the stars in order to ensure that they rise and set according to God's predetermined plan; each star has an angelic guardian (75; 80). Reference is made to four angels responsible for the four seasons; these correspond to the four days inserted between the four quarters of the solar year. There are also four groups of three angels given responsibility for separating the 12 months from one another; in each group there is one angel supervising three subordinate angels. There are even angels appointed over each day of each month of the solar year (12 x 30 days = 360).

2.4. Book Four (The Dream Visions) (83-90)

In this section are found two dream visions: 1 Enoch 83-84 and 85-90 (see Milik, The Books of Enoch, 41-47). As indicated, 1 Enoch 83-90 is represented by four manuscripts from cave four at Qumran (4QEn-c-4QEn-f); 4QEn-f is from the late second century BCE. Only the second dream vision, 1 Enoch 85-90, however, is represented in the four manuscripts, which is probably accidental. In 1 Enoch 83-84, Enoch foresees the coming flood. Following this is Enoch's vision of the course of history (focusing on the Jews) from Adam to the period of the Maccabees; all the dramatis personae are portrayed as animals (83-90), and so 1 Enoch 85-90 is often called the Animal Apocalypse.

2.4.1. 1 Enoch 83-84

Enoch has a dream in which he sees the heavens fall to earth and then the whole earth being swallowed up by the great abyss. Enoch's grandfather Mahalel interprets the terrifying dream as the destruction of the earth because of its sin. What Enoch saw was a prophetic vision of a flood that would destroy the earth. Enoch was directed to pray so that a remnant would be saved from the judgment: Noah and his family. It should be pointed out, however, that from the author's point of view, the flood, although a event in the past, prefigures the final judgment and destruction of sinners.

2.4.2. 1 Enoch 85-90 (The Animal Apocalypse)

The Animal Apocalypse is an allegorical depiction of history focusing on Israel from Adam until the eschaton. Individual human beings, nations and the Watchers are represented as animals, with two exceptions, Noah (89:1) and Moses (89:36), who are transformed from animals into human beings. Angels, however, appear in the apocalypse as white men. Fragments of four copies of the Animal Apocalypse survive in Aramaic (4QEn-c-f), and two Greek fragments have also turned up. According to Milik, 4QEn-e is the earliest Aramaic version of the Animal Apocalypse and is to be dated to the third quarter of the second century BCE, the early Hasmonean period, 150-25 BCE. This provides a terminus ad quem for the composition of the Animal Apocalypse, keeping in mind that 4QEn-e is likely a copy of the original text. A strategy to determine a terminus a quo for this work is to determine at which point does the account of universal history change from being vaticinia ex eventu to apocalyptic prediction. Probably, the last historical reference is the appearance of Judas as leader of the Jewish rebellion against the Seleucids, who is portrayed as the ram with the large horn (90:9-16). (1 Enoch 90:8 refers to the removal of Onias III in 175 BCE and his execution in 171 BCE [2 Macc 4:1-10].) Since nothing is said about the death of Judas in it, the Animal Apocalypse was probably composed after Judas assumed leadership of the rebellion but before his death in 161 BCE.

Of particular note is the addition of the story of the fall of the Watchers and the birth of their offspring (see 1 Enoch 6-16. In 1 Enoch 86, the author describes how the Watchers (stars) came to earth and began to act like human beings (cows). One star fell first and then others followed. The Watchers had sexual relations with human women, who gave birth to "elephants, camels and donkeys." The offspring of the union of the Watchers and women began to destroy human beings. In 1 Enoch 87, Enoch is taken to heaven by a angel (a snow-white man) along with three other angels. Following this, in 1 Enoch 88, the the first Watcher (star) to fall to the earth is bound by one of the four angels; this Watcher is thrown into an abyss. The "elephants, camels and donkeys" began to fight one another. The angel who bound the first Watcher also binds the other Watchers (stars) and casts them into pits.

In 1 Enoch 90, the author begins to speak of events in the post-exilic period. The sheep, who represent the Jews, became dim-sighted and then are oppressed by "eagles, vulture, kites and ravens." These birds began to eat the flesh of the sheep, who then cried out for help. This scene represents the Antiochan persecution of the Jews. Then lambs were born to the snow-white sheep and began to open their eyes and cried out to the sheep. But the sheep would not listen to what they were saying. This depicts the appearance a younger generation of Jews who saw the Hellenizing error of their elders, rejected it, but could not convince them to desist from their apostasy (see Jub. 23:26); their relation to the Chasidim mentioned in 1 and 2 Maccabees is not clear. Then ravens flew above the lambs and then grabbed one of the lambs. The ravens represent the Seleucid kingdom and the lamb that was seized (and killed) probably signifies Onias III, the High Priest who was deposed and murdered. The ravens attacked the sheep and ate them, which describes the Seleucid persecution of those Jews who would resisted Hellenization. Then the lambs grew horns but the ravens crushed those horns; this seems to describes an intial, unsuccessful attempt at revolt. Next, one great horn sprouted on one of the sheep, representing Judas. This sheep, however, was able to open the eyes of the other sheep. (It seems, therefore, that the author distinguishes the "lambs," a conservative reform group constituted by those from the youner generation, from the "sheep," the older generation, which is enlightened only after the appearance of Judas.) It is said that not only the sheep but also the rams joined the sheep with the one horn (Judas); whom the rams represent is unclear, but could be another Jewish resistance movement, perhaps even the group identified as Chasidim in 1 and 2 Maccabees. The birds (eagles, vultures, ravens and kites), however, continue attacking and eating the sheep (Jews), and, whereas the sheep are silent, the rams cry out. It is possible that the many species of birds represent those nations that are allied with the Seleucids, such as the Idumeans. It is not clear how the sheep who do not cry out differ from the rams, who do. Judas is then described as a horned ram, whom the ravens (Seleucids) try to destroy in vain (see 1 Macc 3:10-26; 3:38-4:27).

Enoch, the visionary, then sees the "shepherds" coming, who represent disobedient angels hostile to the Jews now in league with the "birds," the enemies of the Jews (see 1 Enoch 89:59-67) (The last twelve of the seventy shepherds were the most destructive to the Jews [90:17]). These shepherds cry out to the birds urging them to break the horn of the ram, but the birds fail. Then the ram cries out for the divine help, and there appears a man, who represents an angel; this angel brought the sought-for assistance. (This angel also records the names of these shepherds to give to give to God, "the Lord of the sheep.") The event described is probably the battle of Beth-Zur in 164 BCE, for, according to see 2 Macc 11:6-12, an angelic horseman appeared on the battlefield to bring divine help to Judas and his troops (see 1 Macc 4:26-35; Ant. 12.7.5; 313-15; 2 Macc 11:1-38). Then all the gentiles forces hostile to the Jews ("all the eagles, vultures, ravens and kites") gather together to do battle against Judas. This is the turning point is the struggle of the Jews with the Seleucids and their allies, for the "sheep" are now given a great sword. (Milik argues the author is writing just after the battle of Beth-Zur in 164 BCE, because he wrongly expected a coalition of gentile forces under the command of the Seleucids to attack Judas and his allies [90:16] [The Books of Enoch, 44]). Such a coordinated attack, however, never occurred, because of Judas' pre-emptive strikes against neighboring peoples [1 Macc 5:1-68; 2 Macc 10:14-38; 12:10-45]. This suggests that the author wrote before the time of Judas' pre-emptive assaults.)

Following upon Judas's victory is the final judgment (90:20-27). Seven angels, represented by seven snow-white ones, are commanded by God, the Lord of the sheep, to bring before him both the one star that fell to earth and the rest of the stars that fell to earth after it. (The one star is Shemhazah and the other stars are the other Watchers who followed him to earth.) This is the time of the judgment of the Watchers, who will be found guilty and thrown into an abyss, full of fire. Not only the stars are to be judged, but also the seventy shepherds, who represent angels who worked against Israel during different periods of history. They were found guilty and thrown into an fiery abyss. Finally, the blinded sheep, who represent pro-Hellenistic Jews, are brought before God, found guilty and thrown into a fiery abyss also.

After the final judgment, the house (or Temple) was transformed; the old Temple is removed and God, the Lord of the sheep, brought a new Temple to takes its place. At this time, all the gentiles, symbolized by various animals other than sheep, become subordinate to the sheep, those Jews who survive final judgment. After this, a snow-white cow is born, with huge horns, and all the animals feared him and did obeissance to him. This snow-white cow probably represents the Davidic Messiah.

2.5. Book Five (The Letter of Enoch) (91-107)

Traditionally known as the Letter of Enoch, 1 Enoch 91–105 literarily consists of two sections: the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10 + 91:11–17) and Enoch’s “letter” (see 100:6) to his sons, which consists of exhortations to the righteous (including his children) and woes to sinners. Portions of 1 Enoch 91-105 in the original Aramaic are found in 4QEn-c and 4QEn-g. 1 Enoch 91-105 clearly is an amalgamation of different traditions, so that it should not be surprising sometimes to find only a loose conceptual consistency among its various component parts. (That the Ethiopic version is out of order is confirmed by the Aramaic fragments of 1 Enoch. The original order is: 91:1-10, 18-19; 93:1-10; 91:11-17; 93:11-14; 94 [Milik, The Books of Enoch, 260-70].)

The probable date of the composition of the “Letter of Enoch” is the early second century BCE. This means that the sinners are the Jewish Hellenizers, so vilified in 1 and 2 Maccabees and other literature from this period. The description of the sinners in the letter fits this hypothesis well. Social class is clearly a factor in the conflict between the “righteous” and the “sinners,” since the latter are described as rich and powerful, who oppress the former (94:8–9; 96:5; 97:8–10; 98:11; 100:6). Hellenizing Jews were in political and economic ascendancy before the Maccabean revolt; in fact, to accommodate to the dominant Hellenistic culture was a condition for political and economic advancement (e.g., the Tobiads). In addition, speaking from the point of view of the “righteous,” the author condemns the “sinners” as having gone astray and having taught others to do likewise (97:10; 98:9, 15; 99:1; 104:9). In particular, they have perverted the Law (99:2; see 98:14) and have rejected “the foundations and eternal inheritance of your fathers” (99:14). This accusation of false views and perversion of the Law is applicable to Hellenizing Jews, who took an accommodating approach to their ancestral religion. It must be conceded, however, that any Jewish sectarian group could speak in these terms about their opponents. What tips the balance in favor of the identification of the sinners as Hellenizing Jews of the early second century BCE is the accusation of idolatry leveled against the “sinners” (99:7-9; 104:9). That the Hellenizers were participants in idolatrous practices is clear from 1 and 2 Maccabees (see 1 Macc 1:41–50, 54b; 2:15–26; 2 Macc 4:3, 19; 6:2, 7–9); at no other time in the second-Temple period was this true of a group of Palestinian Jews. Since Jews were involved in pagan practices, it is unnecessary to assume that gentiles were to be included among the “sinners” referred to in the Letter of Enoch. Finally, according to 1 Enoch, some righteous die during this conflict with the “sinners” (99:15; 100:7; 103:15), which fits with an early second-century context, since many Jews who refused to abandoned the Law and their ancestral religion were martyred. This anti-Hellenizing group standing behind the Letter of Enoch evidently referred to itself as “the sons of righteousness,” the eternal elect” and the plant of truth (93:2) (see plant of righteousness in 93:5 and eternal plant of righteousness in 1 Enoch 93:10). That is, they see themselves as the true Israel chosen out of Abraham’s descendents.

In 1 Enoch 91:1-10, 18-19, Enoch summons his children, in order to reveal to them what he has learned by means of divine revelation: “For a voice calls me and a spirit is poured out upon me that I may show you everything that will happen to you forever” (91:1; see 91:18; 93:2). (Later, he refers to this revelation as mysteries [103:2; 104:10, 12].) That revelation is the Apocalypse of Weeks, an outline of the “weeks” or periods of human history focusing on Israel, beginning in Enoch’s time and extending until the eschaton. The Apocalypse of Weeks then serves as the basis for Enoch’s exhortations to the righteous and woes to the sinners. In the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1-10; 91:11-17), human history is divided into ten weeks, or eras, of disproportionate duration. Week one is the antediluvian period of righteousness, whereas week two is the antediluvian period of wickedness followed by the first consummation or judgment (the flood). Week three sees the appearance of the plant of righteousness (Abraham) and another as the eternal plant of righteousness (Jacob); in week four the Law is given to Israel. Week five is the time of the first Temple and David's kingdom, whereas week six is the time of Israel's first apostasy, the destruction of the Temple and the dispersion. In week seven another apostate generation arises: the pro-Hellenistic Jews who conspire with the Seleucids to eradicate Judaism. History reaches its turning point in the seventh week, when certain righteous Jews, elect "from the eternal plant of righteousness" (93:10), with divine help shall prevail over their oppressors, these apostate Jews. In the eighth week, the righteous will execute judgment on all the wicked, and in the ninth, the wicked will be removed forever from the earth and cast into the pit. Finally, the tenth week will see judgment executed on the Watchers; also the old heaven shall be removed and a new heaven revealed. Then there will be many weeks without number in which righteousness prevails.

In his exhortation and woes in his "letter," Enoch, on the basis of the revelation that he has received, explains that contrary to popular expectation he knows that there will be a final judgment when the righteous will be vindicated and rewarded, while the wicked will be punished. He says that he knows this “mystery” because he has read the heavenly tablet on which it is recorded (103:2; see 93:2). His message is that both the sinners and the righteous should recognize that the present state of affairs is abnormal and temporary. Enoch's exhortations in 102:4-104:13 illustrates this well. He says, for example, "But you souls of the righteous, fear not; and be hopeful, you souls that died in righteousness. Be not sad because your souls have gone down into Sheol in sorrow; or because your flesh fared not well the earthly existence in accordance with your goodness; indeed the time you happened to be in existence was a time of sinners, a time of cursing and a time of plague" (102:4-5). In due time, God will restore the moral order, bringing punishment to the wicked and retribution to the righteous. This time of eschatological reversal and retribution is called the “the day of the great judgment” (94:9; 98:10; 99:15; 104:5), “the day your destruction” (96:8a), “the day of your judgment” (96:8b; 98.8), “that day of judgment” (97:3) and “the days of your judgment” (97:5 [B C]). On that day, theophanically God will appear as a warrior and, with the help of his angelic army, execute eschatological judgment (100:4; see 91:7). The author’s opponents, however, deny that there are rewards and punishments after death (102:6–8); they do not believe in a post-mortem final judgment or even an afterlife. He continues by holding out hope for the righteous dead: "For all good things, and joy and honor are prepared for and written down for the souls of those who died in righteousness" (103:3). Unlike the wicked, who oppress them, the righteous who have died will be renewed, expressed as being "awakened" (91:10; 92:3-5) (see Dan 12:2). All the righteous, both still alive and dead, are destined to shine like the lights of heaven, which describes an angelic type of renewed life (104:2, 4) (see Dan 12:3); this explains why it is said that the righteous, after their eschatological transformation, will have the windows of heaven opened unto them (104:2b), will rejoice as the angels in heaven (104:4b) and will be partners with the angels ("the good-hearted people of Heaven") (104:6b).

The righteous are not to be disturbed by the present inversion of the moral order, but are to realize that God "has designated (specific) days for all things" (92:2). In particular, God has appointed a time for the meting out of retributive justice. The righteous must be careful not to fear sinners or be deceived by their prosperity: "Now fear not, righteous ones, when you see the sinners waxing strong and flourishing; do not be partners with them, but keep far from those who lean unto their own injustice; for you are to be partners with the good-hearted people of Heaven" (104:6-7).
 

3. Reading

1 Enoch  (From R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament)

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