The next event in Paul's life mentioned in the Book of Acts was his move to Antioch. Barnabas, who had been sent to Antioch by the Jerusalem church (Acts 11:22), went to Tarsus to bring Paul back with him to Antioch, where he stayed and worked with Barnabas for a year (Acts 11:25-26). Paul's statement in Gal 2:1 that he went up to Jerusalem for the second time fourteen years later, indicates that Paul spent some time in Tarsus before going with Barnabas to Antioch. The fourteen years could date from Paul's previous trip to Jerusalem and return to Syria-Cilicia, after spending three years in Damascus, or from his conversion. It is probably the former, since this is the natural reading of Gal 2:1. Agabus then came from Jerusalem to Antioch, and predicted a famine, whereupon the church in Antioch sent Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem with some money for famine relief (Acts 11:27-30). This event appears to be the same described in Gal 2:1-2: Paul says in Gal 2:1-2 that fourteen years after his first trip to Jerusalem he went to the city again with Barnabas in response to a revelation; this revelation seems to have been Agabus' prophecy of the impending famine. The famine was probably the one described by Josephus in Ant. 3. 320; 20. 51, 100, and to be dated early into the procuratorship of Tiberius Julius Alexander (46-48), or spanning the procuratorships of Tiberius Julius Alexander (46-48) and Crispus Fadus (44-46). (The problem with determining during whose administration the famine occurred is that there is a textual problem [Ant. 20.100: epi toutou or epi toutois] and it is unclear what Josephus meant on either reading.) Paul explains to the Galatians that while he was in Jerusalem he took the opportunity to lay his "good news" (euaggelion) before "those who seemed to be important' (hoi dokousin) in Jerusalem—probably identical to the "pillars," James, Peter and John (2:9)—in order to receive their approval of what he had been preaching in Tarsus and then in Antioch for the past year (Gal 2:2-3). Paul was compelled to seek their approval because his opponents, whom he called "false brothers," were undermining him, presumably claiming the authority of the Jerusalem church. He was concerned that without the approval of the Jerusalem church his evangelistic efforts would have been in vain because his work would be thwarted by not having the approval of the Jerusalem church. (Paul does not mean that he needed approval for the content of his good news, as if he had had some doubts that what he had been proclaiming was true.) He received their approval of his teaching the gentiles that they were not required to obey the Law. (Also, Titus, a gentile, was not compelled to be circumcised.)

Because he says in Gal 2:1 that this visit to Jerusalem took place "fourteen years later," it is possible to determine to some extent the dates of the events previous to the famine visit. As indicated, it is disputed from which event the fourteen years are to be dated: 1. His first journey to Jerusalem (Gal 1:18) and return to Syria-Cilicia (Gal 1:21);  2. Or his vision of Christ (Gal 1:15). If dated from Paul's first journey to Jerusalem and return to Syria-Cilicia, which is most probable, and if the date of the famine is c. 46-47, then his first Jerusalem visit and taking up residence in Syria-Cilicia took place fourteen years earlier, around 32-33, which would place his conversion c. 29-30, three years before his time spent in Damascus. (It must be remembered that Paul spent one of the fourteen years in Antioch before going to Jerusalem for the second time since his conversion.) This assumes, however, that the three years (1:18) and fourteen years (2:1) are full years. If the two are to be reckoned inclusively, which was common in Jewish usage, what Paul means by three years is two full years and by fourteen years he means thirteen full years. In this case, the period of time could be between fifteen and seventeen years, which would situate his conversion c. 29-32. (This would have to be correlated with Jesus' death and resurrection, which most assume happened between 29 and 33.)

2. The "First Missionary Journey"

After his return to Antioch from his second trip to Jerusalem, Paul was sent on an evangelistic tour, which has come to be known as Paul's First Missionary Journey, and is recorded in Acts 13:4-14:18. Luke says that it was the Holy Spirit who indicated that Paul and Barnabas should be set apart for this work (Acts 13:2); Luke implies that this directive came through the "prophets and teachers" in Antioch: Barnabas, Simeon (called Niger), Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen (= Manahem) the foster-brother of Herod the tetrarch (Herod Antipas). During this time, Paul founded the churches in southern part of the Roman province of Galatia; these churches were the likely recipients of the Letter to the Galatians. Paul and Barnabas sailed from Seleucia, the port of Antioch, to the island of Cyprus. Cyprus was a Roman province ruled by a proconsul (see Acts 5:7: anthupatos) since 22 BCE. They traveled to the city of Salamis, where they preached in the synagogues there (Acts 13:5). (Luke notes that John [Mark] was with Paul and Barnabas, helping them [Acts 13:5].) Then, moving westward, they journeyed across the island to Paphos, the seat of the Roman provincial government. From Paphos, Paul, Barnabas and John [Mark] traveled by ship to Perga in the province of Pamphylia and from there to Pisidian Antioch in the Roman province of Galatia. In Pisidian Antioch, Paul spoke in the synagogue on two consecutive Sabbath days. He and Barnabas were forced out the city through the action of some Jews who convinced some leading "worshipping women" to take official action against the two men. Paul and Barnabas next traveled to the city of Iconium, where Paul spoke in the synagogue to both Jews and Greeks, many of whom believed (14:1-3). When a plot was discovered to stone them, Paul and Barnabas moved on to the Lycaonian cities of Lystra and Derbe (14:4-7), where they successfully evangelized (14:8-20). Paul and Barnabas retraced their steps until they reached Pisidian Antioch; in each city they appointed elders (14:21b-23). The pair traveled through the ethnic region of Pisidia, in the southernmost region of the Roman province of Galatia, and then entered the Roman province of Pamphylia. They proclaimed the good news in Perga, a city in Pamphylia (14:25a). From Perga, Paul and Barnabas went to the port city of Attalia, from where they returned by ship to Antioch in Syria. Luke says that in Antioch they stayed with the disciples "not a short time" (chronon ouk oligon) (14:28). It is probable that during this stay in Antioch Paul became aware of the need to write a letter to his Galatian churches, because false teachers had infiltrated these newly-founded congregations and had almost convinced them that they as gentiles must obey the Law as a condition of being declared righteous (see references to these false teachers in Gal 1:7, 9; 3:1; 4:17-18; 5:7, 12; 6:12-13).

Highlights of First Missionary Journey

• In Paphos, Paul encountered the sorcerer and false prophet Bar-Jesus (Elymus), who tried to prevent Paul and Barnabas from proclaiming the word to the proconsul of the Roman province of Cyprus, Sergius Paullus (Acts 13:6-12). Paul, filled with the Holy Spirit, pronounced God's judgment against this Jewish sorcerer, which took the form of blindness. Luke records, "But Saul, who was also known as Paul, filled with the Holy Spirit, fixed his gaze on him, and said, 'You who are full of all deceit and fraud, you son of the devil, you enemy of all righteousness, will you not cease to make crooked the straight ways of the Lord? Now, behold, the hand of the Lord is upon you, and you will be blind and not see the sun for a time'. And immediately a mist and a darkness fell upon him, and he went about seeking those who would lead him by the hand." (This Sergius Paullus may have been the same man who earlier had been one of the curators of the Tiber during the reign of Claudius [Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum vi, no. 31545].)



• John (Mark) left Paul and Barnabas in Perga for reasons that Luke does not disclose (13:13). The issue of John (Mark) was later to become a source of contention for Paul and Barnabas (see Acts 15:36-40).
  


• It is clear from what Paul says in Gal 4:13, that, at some point during his evangelistic tour of the Roman province of Galatia, he became seriously ill. He says to the Galatians, "It was because of a weakness of the flesh [illness] that I first preached the good news to you." It is not clear how his illness became the occasion of his preaching of the good news to the Galatians. Nevertheless, Paul says that the Galatians treated him exceptionally well, in spite of his illness:
"You did not despise or scorn me, but received me as an angel of God and even Jesus Christ himself" (Gal 4:14). From what he writes in Gal 4:15 "For I bear you witness that, if possible, you would have plucked out your eyes and given them to me," it is possible that Paul's illness may be related to his eyes. In the Book of Acts, however, Luke says nothing about Paul's illness.


• Luke provides a summary of Paul's speech to those gathered in the synagogue in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:13-41, 44-48). After the synagogue service was finished, many Jews and "worshippers" (seboumenoi) (of God), by which is meant gentiles who had embraced Jewish monotheism, attached themselves to Paul and Barnabas. On the next Sabbath, Paul spoke again, but found that resistance to him had hardened; according to Luke, the Jews were jealous that so many gentiles had come to the synagogue to hear Paul (Acts 13:44-49). Paul announced that from that time on he would concentrate his evangelistic efforts on the gentiles. He quoted Isa 49:6 "I will also make you a light of the nations, so that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth" to his Jewish detractors to make the point that it was God's will that the gentiles hear the good news.
  
  
• In Acts 14:3, Luke says that in Iconium the Lord confirmed the veracity of the preaching of "the word of grace" (or the message that has for its content the grace of God) (see Acts 20:24, 32) by working "signs and wonders" (semeia kai terata) through "them," presumably Paul and Barnabas. In his letter to the Galatian churches, Paul makes reference to the fact that God worked miracles (dunameis) among the Galatians through their faith (and not from the "works of the Law") (Gal 3:5; see also Acts 15:12).



• In Lystra, Paul healed a crippled man, which resulted in the people acclaiming him and Barnabas as the Greek gods Hermes and Zeus respectively (14:8-20). Luke records Paul’s speech in Lystra to the gentile crowd that mistook him and Barnabas for the gods Hermes and Zeus. Paul exclaimed that Barnabas and he were merely human beings there to exhort them to turn from idols to the living God (Acts 14:15-17). When addressing this gentile audience, Paul appealed to their pre-existing knowledge of the one God who provided them with all their needs, and polemicized against their "worthless idols" (mataioi; Heb: hebel) (see also Acts 17:22-31; Rom 1:19-20) (see Exod 20:4-51 Kings 16:2, 13, 26; 2 Kings 17:15; Jer 2:5; 8:19). Ironically, at the instigation of Jews from Pisidian Antioch and Iconium, the crowd turned on the pair, no longer viewing them as gods, and Paul was stoned, but survived (seemingly miraculously). Based on what Paul writes in his letters, it appears that Luke does not record in the Book of Acts most of the suffering and persecution that Paul endured as an apostle (1 Cor 4:9; 15:32; 2 Cor 4:8-11; 6:4-5, 9-10; 11:23-27).

3. The Jerusalem Council

Between the first and second missionary journeys the so-called Jerusalem council was held, during which the Law and the status of gentile believers was discussed. Luke explains that some men came from Judea to Antioch, where Paul was, and preached to the gentile converts that they must be circumcised (and afterwards keep the Law) or else they could not be saved. As a result, a conflict arose between these men and Paul and Barnabas; the church in Antioch sent Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem to settle this issue (Acts 15:1-2). Paul and Barnabas' views were vindicated by the council, and they returned to Antioch (Acts 15:35). They were given a letter confirming the support of the Jerusalem church for their view on gentile believers and the Law (A transcript of the letter is found in Acts 15:24-29). The letter placed only four requirements on gentile believers: abstaining from idolatry (i.e., food sacrificed to idols), blood, strangled animals and sexual immorality (see Acts 15:20). Conforming to these four requirements would facilitate the integration of Jews and gentiles in the church. Accompanying Paul and Barnabas were Judas and Silas, both identified as prophets (Acts 15:30-35).

The event described by Paul in Gal 2:11-14—Paul's confrontation of Cephas (Peter)—likely occurred after Paul's return to Antioch from his first missionary journey but before he went to Jerusalem for the third time, in order to settle the issue of gentile believers (Acts 15). (It is possible, however, that this event occurred after Paul's second trip to Jerusalem, but before his first missionary journey.) Paul criticized Peter for his inconsistency in his relations with gentiles, for, before "certain men from James" (tines apo Iakobou) came to Antioch, Peter ate with gentile believers, whereas upon their arrival he withdrew from table fellowship with them. Peter did not seem to have the courage of his convictions: "He feared those from the circumcision group" (i.e., the group that advocated that gentile believers be circumcised) (Gal 2:12). Although it is not clear who these men were, the designation "certain men from James" probably refers to some from the religious faction mentioned in Acts 15:2, 5: Pharisaic believers who taught that gentiles must keep the Law. These men are said to be "from James," perhaps because they claimed the authority of James for their position (But James spoke in favor of Paul's position at the Jerusalem council.)

4. The "Second Missionary Journey"

After his return to Antioch, Paul and Silas set out on what is known as his Second Missionary Journey, recorded in Acts 15:39-18:22. Paul covered more territory this time. (Paul and Barnabas have a falling out over whether to take John [Mark] along [Acts 15:36-40].) Starting from Antioch, Paul and Silas (and no doubt others) traveled overland through Syria and Cilicia strengthening the churches. They then visited Derbe and Lystra (Acts 16:1), and Luke says that they "traveled through the cities" (Acts 16:4), which probably implies that they also visited Iconium and Pisidian Antioch, since it was Paul's plan to revisit the churches founded on his first missionary journey (Acts 15:36). They delivered to these Galatian churches the decision reached by the Jerusalem council (Acts 16:4). Next they traveled through "the Phrygia and Galatia region," by which Luke seems to mean the ethnic regions of Phrygia and Galatia considered as one region from the point of view of the journey (Acts 16:6).

They were prevented by the Holy Spirit from speaking the word in the Roman province of Asia, but made their way to the border of the ethnic region of Mysia (kata tên Musian), wherever this was exactly. (Mysia is part of the Roman province of Asia.) They intended to turn east and go to the Roman province of Bithynia, but "the Spirit of Jesus" (to pneuma tou Iêsou) would not allow them to do so (how this happened is not explained). Instead of turning east, Paul and Silas traveled west through the ethnic region of Mysia until they reached Troas. In a vision, Paul saw a Macedonian man begging him to come to Macedonia, which he took to be God's leading (Acts 16:9-10). They traveled by ship to Samothrace and then on to the port city of Neapolis. (The change of person from third to first person plural in Acts 16:10-17 indicates that Luke, the author of the Book of Acts, has joined Paul's entourage and has traveled with them to Philippi.) From there they went along the Via Egnatia to Philippi (Acts 16:11-12; 1 Thess 2:1; Phil 4:15-18). They then traveled to Amphipolis, to Apollonia and then to Thessalonica. (The reversion back to the third person in the narrative implies that Luke stayed behind in Philippi [Acts 17:1].) Paul then left Beroea for Athens in the Roman province of Achaia. From there he traveled about 75 kilometers by sea to Corinth, where he spent eighteen months (Acts 18:11). Paul's stay in Corinth can be dated c. 50-52. From Corinth Paul set sail for Syria with Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:18); en route they stopped at Ephesus, where Aquila and Priscilla remained (Acts 18:19). Paul then traveled from Ephesus to Caesarea. Luke says that upon landing in Caesarea Paul "went up" and greeted the church, implying that Paul visited Jerusalem. After his fourth visit to the city, he "went down" to Antioch (Acts 18:22).

• Tarsus Mountains and Cilician Gates
  
  

Highlights of Second Missionary Journey

• Paul met Timothy in Lystra, circumcised him, and took him along on his "second missionary journey" (16:1-3). Timothy became an associate of Paul and began to travel with him, Silas and others. Although his mother was a Jew, it seems that Timothy was not raised fully as a Jew, since he was not circumcised; he was, however, taught the scriptures (see 2 Tim 3:15). Sometime before Paul arrived in Lystra from Derbe during his second missionary journey, Timothy's mother, Eunice, his grandmother, Lois, and he had become believers (see 2 Tim 1:5). Timothy received a spiritual gift through the laying on of the hands of the elders (see 2 Tim 1:6). Also prophecy was spoken over him (1 Tim 1:18-19; 4:14).

• In Philippi, Lydia was converted. On a Sabbath, leaving the city through a gate that led to the River Gangites, Paul spoke to Lydia, who was from Thyatira and described as a "worshipper of God," among other women. (Presumably Jews and "worshippers of God" gathered at the place on the Sabbath; this implies that there was no synagogue in the city.) She believed and was baptized along with her household (Acts 16:13-15).
On his way to the place of prayer, Paul also exorcized a demon from a slave-girl that gave her ability to tell fortunes. Luke says that she "had a pythonic spirit" (pneuma puthona), or a spirit of divination (a person inspired by Apollo associated with the "Pythian" god at Delphi) (Acts 16:16-18). Luke writes, "Following after Paul and us, she kept crying out, saying, 'These men are servants of the Most High God, who are proclaiming to you the way of salvation'" (Acts 16:17). Why the demon in her did this or at least allowed her to do so is difficult to determine. Luke describes Paul's response, "Paul was greatly annoyed, and turned and said to the spirit, 'I command you in the name of Jesus Christ to come out of her'." What annoyed Paul about the situation is also unclear, and whether the slave-girl subsequently believed the good news after her exorcism is not indicated. As a result of Paul's exorcism of her, the slave-girl's masters filed a complaint, and Silas and he were ordered beaten by the Roman magistrates (Gk. stratêgos = Lat. praetor) and put into prison (16:19-40). (Those who beat Paul and Silas were the lictors, the officials in attendance on a Roman magistrate; they would have used the rod of the lictor to beat the pair.) The prison where Paul and Silas were kept was shaken by an earthquake, the prison doors were thrown open and the chains of the prisoners were broken. Paul prevented the Philippian jailer from killing himself, and led him and his household to faith in Jesus. Paul and Silas were released from prison when it was discovered that they were Roman citizens; the magistrates requested that they leave the city. During his time in Philippi, Paul founded the church in that city.


• In Thessalonica, Paul spoke in the synagogue for three consecutive Sabbaths, with some success among not only Jews but also "worshippers" [of God], i.e., gentiles who had attached themselves to the synagogue (Acts 17:1-9). These gentiles includes "not few prominent women" (Acts 17:4). There were Jews in the city, however, who resisted Paul and Silas, created a disturbance and sought to drag Paul and Silas before the city authorities. When they could not find Paul and Silas, they accused Jason, in whose house Paul and Silas were staying, before the city authorities. (The magistrates in Thessalonica were called "politarchs.") At this time, Paul founded the Thessalonian church, which was almost entirely gentile. (In 1 Thess 1:9, he refers to the Thessalonians as having turned from idols, which is not an appropriate epithet for Jewish converts. Similarly, in 1 Thess 2:14, Paul refers to the Thessalonians' own "countrymen," in contrast to the Jews who are persecuting the churches in Judea.)  



• In Beroea, Paul spoke in the synagogue in the city, where he found a receptive audience; many of the Jews there believed and also "not a few prominent Greek women and not a few Greek men" (Acts 17:12). Paul's Jewish opponents from Thessalonica, however, came to the city and stirred up the crowd against them. Paul was forced to move on to Athens, whereas Silas and Timothy stayed behind in Beroea with instructions to join Paul as soon as possible (Acts 17:10-15).



• Upon arriving alone in Athens, Paul was grieved over the idolatry prevalent in the city (Acts 17:16). He spoke in the synagogue in Athens to Jews and "worshippers" [of God], and in the agora. Some Stoic and Epicurean philosophers who heard Paul's message arranged for Paul to speak before the court of the Areopagus that met on the Areopagus, a rocky hill in Athens, northwest of the Acropolis. Luke includes a summary of Paul’s speech (17:16-34). Paul tailored his message to the philosophically-sophisticated Athenians. He began his address by recalling that he had seen an altar (bômos) inscribed with "To an unknown god" (agnostô theô). He then announced that he would now declare to them this unknown God. That there was such an altar is supported by two literary references. In his Life of Apollonius of Tyana, it is said that there are "altars to unknown gods" (agnostôn daimonôn bomoi) in Athens (6.3); likewise, Pausanias describes how he observed on the road from the harbor at Phaleron Bay into the city "altars of unknown gods and of heroes" (bomoi de theôn te onomazomenôn Agnostôn kai heroôn) (Description of Greece 1.1.4). (He also refers to "an altar of unknown gods" in Olympia [5.14.8].) No such altar remains in Athens, but a similar one was discovered in the temple of Demeter in Pergamum; a Latin version of this inscription exists on the Palatine Hill in Rome. It is possible that the inscription that Paul read was "To unknown gods," but he changed it to "To an unknown God" in order to make it useful as the opening of his address. He explained to the Athenians the Jewish view that there was one God who did not dwell in temples, nor derived any benefit from human beings; rather this one God created all human beings from one man and determined the times and boundaries of all nations. According to Paul, God in his forbearance purposed that human beings should seek for him and, if they did, they would find him (Acts 17: 24-27; see Acts 14:16-17). This is why he said, "He [God] is not far from each of us" (Acts 17:27). He then cited parallels between the Jewish view of God and statements from two Stoic philosophers, in order that his hearers could have a frame of reference by which to understand his teaching. He quoted from a quatrain of Epimendies: "In him we live and move and are" (see Diogenes Laertius, Lives, 1.112). The second quotation was an adaptation from the Stoic poet Arastus: "We are his offspring" (Phaenomena, l. 5). Paul viewed Stoic pantheism as conceptually close to Judaism, insofar as both agree that all things have their origin in one divine source. He therefore drew the conclusion that idolatry was absurd, for, on the assumption that all things originated from God, God could not be depicted as one or more of those things (Acts 17:29b). He added that God was now prepared to overlook such ignorance and commanded all gentiles to repent (Acts 17:30). He then mentioned the uniquely Jewish idea of a final judgment and identified Jesus as the one through whom God would execute that judgment (Acts 17:31). He also said that God had given proof of final judgment by raising Jesus from the dead (thereby vindicating him) (Acts 17:31). Only a few residents of Athens believed Paul's message; most were scandalized by Paul's statement that Jesus was raised from the dead (Acts 17:32-34).



• In Corinth, Paul met Aquila and his wife Priscilla, who had been expelled from Rome by the emperor Claudius along with other Jews. At first, he worked in Corinth as a tentmaker with Priscilla and Aquila, and spoke in the synagogue every Sabbath, addressing Jews and gentiles. When Silas and Timothy rejoined Paul in Corinth, Paul devoted himself exclusively to preaching to the Jews (Acts 18:1-5). The probable reason that Paul ceased working as a tentmaker was that Timothy and Silas brought money to Paul from the Philippian church, so that Paul could now afford to proclaim the good news on a fulltime basis (2 Cor 11:8-9; Phil 4:15). Timothy and Silas also brought a good report about the Thessalonian church, which brought great relief to Paul, for he was concerned that the Thessalonians might have deteriorated spiritually under the pressure of persecution (1 Thess 3:6-10). From this it is clear that Paul sent his two letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth. Since he was in Corinth for eighteen months between 50-53, Paul probably wrote between 50-52, shortly after his arrival in the city (Acts 18:11). In Corinth, Crispus, the synagogue ruler, believed along with his household (18:8). (The term "synagogue ruler" [archisynagogos] denotes the chief synagogue official; it occurs in elsewhere in the New Testament [Mark 5:21-43 = Luke 8:40-56; Acts 13:15 and in the Theodotus Inscription.) Paul says in 1 Corinthians that those of the household of Stephanus were the first converts in Corinth (1 Cor 16:15) and that he baptized them (1 Cor 1:16); he also mentions that he baptized Crispus and Gaius, but stresses that he did not baptize any more than these in Corinth (1 Cor 1:14-15). Generally, the Jews in Corinth resisted Paul, however, so that he decided to turn his attention to the gentiles only, using the house of Titius Justus (called a "worshipper of God"), next door to the synagogue, for this purpose (Acts 18:6-7). Once, Paul received a vision, encouraging him not to be afraid, but to continue speaking, because no one would attack or harm him (Acts 18:9-10). As indicated, Paul stayed in Corinth for eighteen months, and at one point some Jews dragged him before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, at the location of the bêma. (Corinth was the capital city of the Roman province of Achaia.) The charge against Paul was that he was promulgating an illegal religion, unlike Judaism, which was a religio licita (a permitted religion). Gallio dismissed the accusation against Paul as being merely a religious dispute among Jews (Acts 18:12-17). As a result, Sosthenes became the object of the anger of Paul's accusers: "And they all took hold of Sosthenes...and began beating him in front of the bêma. But Gallio was not concerned about any of these things" (18:17). Paul left Corinth with Aquila and Priscilla, after having taken a Nazarite vow in Cenchraea (Acts 18:18; see Num 6:1-21 and m. Nazir).
  
  
  
  



• In Ephesus, Paul proclaimed the good news in the synagogue in the city; those in attendance asked him to remain longer, but Paul could only promise that he would return to the city. After Paul's departure, Apollos, an Alexandrian, came to Ephesus and taught accurately about Jesus in the synagogue. He knew only the baptism of John, however, so Aquila and Priscilla, who had remained behind in Ephesus, explained "the way of God" to him more completely. Apollos went on to Achaia (including Corinth), where he evangelized among the Jews, proving from scripture that Jesus was the Christ (Acts 18:24-28). (Later some of the Corinthians would interpret Apollos as a type of wisdom teacher and take pride in identifying themselves with him to the exclusion and denigration of Paul and other church leaders [see 1 Cor 1:12; 3:3:3-9, 21-22; 4:60.) 

5. The "Third Missionary Journey"

Upon his return to Antioch, after an unspecified period of time, Paul and his associates set out on what is known as his Third Missionary Journey, described in Acts 18:23-23:35. (See also Rom 15:19, 23-32; 1 Cor 16:1-9; 2 Cor 1:8-11, 1:15-16; 1:23-2:1; 1:12; 7:5-7; 9:1-5, which refer to events in the last year of this "third" missionary journey.) Beginning from Antioch again, Paul (and others) traveled overland westward through Galatia and Phrygia to Ephesus, where he stayed for three years (see Acts 20:31) (Acts 18:23-19:1). Luke describes Paul as traveling "in one place after another in the region of Galatian and Phrygia" (dierchomenos kathexes tên Galatikên choran kai Phrugian); it seems that “the region of Galatia and Phrygia” means the ethnic regions of Phrygia and Galatia (Acts 18:23). (Apollos was in Corinth at this time [Acts 19:1].) During the last of those three years he sent Timothy to Corinth (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10; Acts 19:22), and made an emergency visit to the city (2 Cor 1:23-2:1). He also wrote at least three letters to the Corinthians from Ephesus. The second of these three letters is now know as 1 Corinthians. It is possible that during the time spent in Ephesus the churches in Colossae, Hierapolis and Laodicea—cities in the Lycus valley—were founded under Paul's direction and supervision. After three years, he determined to go to Jerusalem but only after first revisiting churches in Macedonia and Achaia; he also collected money along the way for the poor in Jerusalem and Judea (Rom 15:23-32; 1 Cor 16:1-9; 2 Cor 9:1-5). Paul describes a terrible experience in Asia that he underwent (2 Cor 1:8-11), presumably just prior to his departure, and possibly this was the reason for his departure. Luke says nothing of this; he only describes the riot over the cult of Artemis (Diana) (Acts 19:23-41).

Paul left Ephesus for Troas (Acts 20:1; 2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-7; 9:1-5; 12:14; 13:1). He expected to meet Titus there, who should have been on his way back from Corinth, having delivered a letter to the church there, which is known as the "severe letter" or the "tearful letter," his third letter to the Corinthians (2 Cor 2:13; 12:17-18). But Paul did not meet up with Titus until he was somewhere in Macedonia; Titus gave him some good news about the Corinthians (2 Cor 7:5-7). He sent Titus and two other unidentified men ahead to Corinth with the letter that is now known as 2 Corinthians (2 Cor 8:16-19, 22), which was his fourth letter to the church, and eventually made his way to the city, probably spending the winter there (2 Cor 9:4; 12:14; 13:1; Acts 20:2-3; Rom 16:1; see 1 Cor 16:6). According to 1 Cor 16:5-7, Paul originally intended to visit Macedonia first and then Corinth (1 Cor 16:5-6); he then changed his mind, and planned to go to Corinth first, then to Macedonia and then back to Corinth, where he would set sail for Judea (2 Cor 1:15-16). Paul changed his plans again after he was forced to make an emergency visit to Corinth and then returned to Ephesus (1 Cor 16:7). He did not want to revisit the city until the problems were resolved. Sometime later, after a reconcilation with the Corinthians, Paul visited Corinth again but after travelling through Macedonia into Achaia, which was his original plan. While in Corinth, Paul wrote his Letter to the Romans. From Corinth Paul went to Philippi in Macedonia on account of a plot against him (in Corinth presumably) (Acts 20:3), where he set sail for Syria (Acts 20:3-6). (At this point, Luke rejoined Paul, as indicated by his change from the third person to the first person plural [20:5]; the implication is that Luke was in Philippi.) He sailed to Troas in Asia (Acts 20:6); then a week later he set sail for Miletus in the Roman province of Asia—passing through Assos, Mitylene, Chios, Samos. In Miletus Paul sent for the Ephesian elders. (Acts 20:13-38). It is clear from what Luke says in Acts 20:4-5 that Paul was accompanied by many men, including Sopater, son of Pyrrhus from Beroea, Aristarchus and Secundus from Thessalonica, Gaius from Derbe, Timothy, Luke (of course) and unnamed others (i.e., those who were with Luke in Philippi, for whom the group mentioned in Acts 20:5 was waiting). From Miletus he and his company went by ship to Cos, to Rhodes and to Patara (Acts 21:1-2), where they found a ship traveling to Syria. They landed in Tyre, where they stayed seven days (Acts 21:3-4); they then sailed to Ptolemais and then to Caesarea (Acts 21:7-8).

From Caesarea, Paul and his associates traveled to Jerusalem, where he was the focus of a riot in the Temple, and was arrested (Acts 21:15-17; 27-36); because of a threat against his life he was transferred to Caesarea (Acts 23:12-35). Paul spent the last two years of Felix's procuratorship in prison (Acts 24:7). Felix was succeeded by Festus (War 2. 271; Ant. 20. 182). There is uncertainty about which year Festus replaced Felix as procurator. Paul founded the church in Corinth between 50-52. It seems that a span of five to six years is required for all the subsequent events to occur, so that Paul could not have been arrested before 55-58, which means that Festus must have replaced Felix as procurator between 57 and 60.
 

Highlights of the Third Missionary Journey

• In Ephesus, Paul encountered twelve disciples (mathêtas) who had not yet received the Holy Spirit, but had only undergone John's baptism; Paul laid his hands on them and the Holy Spirit came upon them, with the result that they spoke in tongues and prophesied (19:1-7). Paul spoke for three months "concerning the Kingdom of God" in the synagogue in Ephesus, but, on account of Jewish resistance ("they maligned the Way before the masses"), was then forced to relocate with his disciples from the synagogue to the lecture hall Tyrannus, where he daily held discussions for two years (Acts 19:8-10). Paul was known to have done miracles in the city (healings and exorcisms): "God was performing extraordinary miracles by the hands of Paul, so that handkerchiefs or aprons were even carried from his body to the sick, and the diseases left them and the evil spirits went out" (Acts 19:11-12). During his time in Ephesus some Jewish exorcists, seven sons of a man named Sceva, invoked "the name of Jesus whom Paul preaches" in an exorcism; the demonized man overpowered them, not recognizing their authority. When this story became known, the Ephesians were seized with fear (19:13-17). Many practitioners of sorcery in Ephesus believed and publicly burned their scrolls relating to their magical practices (19:19-20). A riot broke out in Ephesus over Paul's negative effect on the sale of idols of Artemis; the people chanted "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians" and congregated at the theater. Because of this opposition Paul was forced to leave Ephesus after a total of three years (Acts 19:23-20:1; see 20:31).



• In Troas, on his way to Jerusalem, Paul raised Eutychus from the dead; he had fallen from an upper window (Acts 20:7-12).



• In Miletus, Paul called the Ephesians elders to join him there; he wanted to avoid a long layover in Ephesus, because he intended to arrive in Jerusalem before Pentecost (late spring) (Acts 20:16). Paul and his entourage left Philippi some time after the Feast of Unleavened Bread in early spring (Acts 20:6). (Interestingly, Paul referred to the elders who assembled as "overseers," implying that the two terms were interchangeable [Acts 20:28].) Luke records Paul's speech to the Ephesian elders while in Miletus (20:18-35). Paul summarized what he had preached in Ephesus during his years in the city: "I declared to Jews and Greeks the need for repentance to God and faith in our Lord Jesus" (Acts 20:21). Paul told his audience that he was compelled by the Holy Spirit to go to Jerusalem, even though he knew that there were dangers for him there (Acts 20:22-24). He then added that the Ephesians would not see him again (Acts 22:25, 28) (Paul did send Timothy [1 Tim 1:3] and Tychius [2 Tim 4:12] to Ephesus at different times; whether he himself revisited the church after his release from his Roman imprisonment is unclear, although it may be implied by 1 Tim 1:3.) He also warned the Ephesians that false teachers would arise from their midst and seek to lead the Ephesian believers astray. What Paul predicted would happen did happen, for, after his release from Roman imprisonment, he wrote to Timothy: "As I urged you upon my departure for Macedonia, remain on at Ephesus so that you may instruct certain men not to teach strange doctrines, nor to pay attention to myths and endless genealogies, which give rise to mere speculation rather than furthering the administration of God which is by faith" (1 Tim 1:3-4; see also 1:19-20; 4:1-8). In response to accusations from his opponents, Paul defended his behavior in Ephesus as exemplary (Acts 20:26, 33-35). To conclude his address, Paul quoted from a otherwise unknown saying of Jesus: "It is more blessed to give than receive" (Acts 20:35).
  
  
• In Caesarea (Maritima),
Agabus the prophet came to Paul to warn him not to go to Jerusalem. But Paul was convinced that the Holy Spirit was directing him to go there (Acts 21:10-14), even though he expected imprisonment and hardship in Jerusalem (Acts 20:22-23).


• In Jerusalem, James, the brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church, advised Paul to underwrite the cost of sacrifices for some Jews under a Nazarite vow in order to demonstrate to Jewish believers "zealous for the Law" (21:20) that he was not advocating that Jews abandon obedience to the Law (Acts 21:20-25). Paul agreed to this and did what was necessary to bring their Nazarite vows to an end, a process that required seven days (Acts 21:26-27). Some Jews from Asia saw Paul in the Temple during this period and claimed wrongly that he had taken the gentile Trophimus (from Ephesus) beyond the soreg into the inner courts (Acts 21:27-29; see Acts 19:9; 20:19). Paul became the focus of the anger of a riotous mob, which dragged him "out of the Temple" (exo tou hierou) i.e., the inner courts, into the outer courts of the Temple and began to beat him; were it not for the intervention of Roman troops, Paul would have been killed (Acts 21:30-36). The commander (chiliarch = Latin tribunus) wrongly concluded that Paul was "the Egyptian," a messianic pretender who led a group of 4,000 sicarii out to the desert to begin a revolt against Roman rule (Acts 21:38). (Josephus says that "the Egyptian" led 30,000 to the Mount of Olives, where he said that he would command the walls of Jerusalem to fall down, whereupon they would enter the city and conquer the Roman garrison stationed there [War 2. 261-63; Ant. 20. 167-72].) At first, he planned to flog and then question Paul, but Paul appealed to his Roman citizenship. Luke records Paul's speech delivered to the rioters in the Temple, which was the story of his conversion (22:1-21), and his speech before the Sanhedrin (23:1-10). As soon as Paul began his defense before the Sanhedrin, the High Priest ordered that Paul be struck on the mouth (Acts 23:1-2). The leader of the Sanhedrin was Ananias (probably Annas [John 18:13; Acts 4:6]), son of Nedebaeus. He was appointed to the office in 47 by Herod, king of Chalcis (brother of Herod Agrippa I) (Josephus, Ant. 20.5.2; 103; see 20.6.2; 131; War 2.12.6; 243); he had a reputation for corruption and avarice (Ant. 20.9.2; 206-13). (He was executed by the revolutionaries at the onset of the war with Rome [War 2.17.6; 429; 2.17.9; 441-42].) Paul was righteously indignant at being struck before his guilt was proven, but he withdrew his protest when he realized who Ananias was (Acts 23:1-5). Paul's strategy in his address to the Sanhredrin was to appeal to the Pharisees on the Sanhedrin for support, because they, like him, believed in the resurrection. The end result was that the session end in dissension and even violence (Acts 23:6-10). When a plot was uncovered to assassinate him, Paul was transferred from Jerusalem to Caesarea for safekeeping (Acts 23:12-35).
  
  
• In Caesarea (Maritima), Paul appeared first before the procurator Felix; five days later a delegation sent from the Sanhedrin—including the High Priest Ananias—arrived in Caesarea to bring to Felix accusations against Paul (Acts 24:1-9). (On Antonius Felix, see Tacitus, Annals, 12.54; Josephus, War 2.12.8-13.7; 247-66; Ant. 20.7.1-8.9; 137-84.) A certain Tertulus (identified as an "attorney" [rêtôr]) spoke on behalf of Paul's accusers from the Sanhedrin, charging Paul with being of inciting public disorder among the Jews insofar as he was "the leader of the sect of the Nazarenes." More specifically, Paul was accused of having started a riot in the Temple (Acts 24:2-8). (It seems that the early Jewish believers identified their movement as "the Way," whereas their opponents called it "the sect of the Nazarenes.") Paul responded by conceding that he was a "follower of the Way" (kata tên hodon), but denied that he was the cause of public disorder, especially the incident in the Temple that led to his arrest. In conclusion, he again appealed to the Pharisees among the members of the Sanhedrin by claiming that he was on trial for his belief in the resurrection, by which he meant his belief in the resurrection of Jesus (Acts 24:10-21). Felix postponed his decision on the case. Later Paul spoke before Felix and his Jewish wife Drusilla (Acts 24:26) (On Drusilla, see Josephus, Ant. 19.9.1; 354-55; 20.7.1-2; 137-44). Paul had spent two years as a prisoner in Caesarea when Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus, who decided to leave Paul in prison as a favor to the Jews (Acts 24:27; see Ant. 20.8.10; 185). (Felix was recalled after of his extreme suppression of a Jewish uprising in Caesarea sparked by a conflict between them and Syrians in the city [War 2.13.7; 266-70; Ant. 20.8.7, 9; 173-78, 182-84].) Paul's accusers among the Jews petitioned Festus to allow Paul to be transferred to Jerusalem, because they planned to ambush him along the way and kill him. Paul apparently became aware of this plot and Festus' complicity in it and so "appealed to Caesar," i.e., appealed to have his case heard in Rome (ad Caesarem provoco) (Acts 25:1-12). After Paul appealed to Caesar, (Herod) Agrippa (II) came to Caesarea with his wife Berenikê, and Paul was allowed to address them (Acts 26). He said that he was a prisoner because "for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers, the promise to which our twelve tribes hope to attain," by which he meant the resurrection (26:6-7). His point was that he was a prisoner because he believed that God raised Jesus from the dead. He told Agrippa how he was converted and related events subsequent to that. He also explained that some of his fellow Jews were offended with him because of his liberal attitude towards gentiles, since he was proclaiming to them "that they should repent and turn to God, performing deeds appropriate to repentance (26:20). At the conclusion of the address, Agrippa said, "In a short time you will persuade me to become a Christian" (26:28).

6. First Roman Imprisonment

Because he appealed to Caesar, Paul was sent off to Rome to stand trial. His journey to Rome as a prisoner is described in Acts 27. (Luke's use of the first plural plural implies that he accompanied Paul on his journey to Rome.) Paul set out from Caesarea to Sidon, sailed around Cyprus to Myra in Lycia, where he changed ships. The new ship sailed to Crete (where those in charge decided not to spend the winter) and then towards Rome, but was shipwrecked off the island of Malta. All hands survived and they spent the winter on the island. On the island of Malta, Paul was bitten by a poisonous snake, but did not die; for this reason, the "natives" acclaimed him a god (Acts 28:1-6). Paul healed the father of the proconsul of Malta, Publius, along with other sick people on the island (Acts 28:7-10). After three months on Malta, Paul and his entourage set out for Rome, landing in Syracuse and then traveling to Rome (stopping along the way in Rhegium, Puteoli, the Forum of Appius and Three Taverns).

• The Via Appia

8.1. 1 Clement 5

1 Clement 5 speaks about Paul's death after he had given testimony in the west (i.e., western part of the empire).

8.2. Muratorian Canon and Acts of Peter 1.3

The Muratorian Canon indicates that Paul left Rome after his imprisonment and went to Spain. Moreover, the Acts of Peter 1.3 says that Paul went back to Rome after his release from imprisonment.

8.3. Eusebius

Eusebius stated that Paul was beheaded by Nero in Rome (H.E. 2.22.2; 2.25-3.1) (see Jerome, de vir. ill. 11.1).

Source

Mamertine Prison At the base of the Capitoline Hill in Rome is the Mamertine Prison, where Paul may have been kept during his second Roman imprisonment. Access to the prison was through a hole in the ceiling—visible above; above the prison was a room for the prison guards.

9. Paul as Letter Writer

9.1. Paul wrote letters to churches that he founded and to individuals. The New Testament contains thirteen of Paul's letters, but these are not the totality of Paul's literary output. We know of three of Paul's letters that are no longer extant: Col 4:16 refers to a letter to the church in Laodocia; 1 Cor 5:9 refers to a letter Paul wrote before 1 Corinthians; 2 Cor 2:4 refers to a letter written between 1 & 2 Corinthians and after Paul's painful visit. It is conceivable that Paul wrote other letters about which we know nothing. It is important to note that Paul's extant letters are occasional literature, meaning that Paul wrote them for specific occasions. This means that Paul sometimes presupposes knowledge on the part of his reader to which we do not have access; this fact makes interpretation of his letters difficult at times.

9.2. With respect to the ancient world, a distinction must be made between private and public letters. The former were personal notes, whereas the latter were intended for a larger readership. Most of Paul's letters were intended as public letters. It is also important to keep in mind the epistolary genre of the Greco-Roman world when analyzing the structure of the letters of the New Testament. A letter written in the Greco-Roman world, including Paul's letters, tended to consist of the following parts. (It must be stressed, however, that there are many possible variations on this type.)

• Introduction

        Salutation (Sender; receiver; greeting)

An author would begin by identifying himself as the sender and then identify his intended reader(s).  Following this, he would extend a greeting to his intended readers (author [nominative], intended reader [dative:  "to..."], greetings [chairein]). In most of the New Testament letters, rather than "greetings" (chairein) (but see Jas 1:1), one finds the formula "grace and peace" (charis kai eirene).

Health Wish, Prayer and/or Thanksgiving

After the salutation, the author may express a wish that the intended reader be in good health, following which he may offer a prayer and/or a thanksgiving on behalf of his intended readers. (In shorter, private letters, one often finds only a salutation.) In Paul's letters, typically, one finds thanksgivings (or praise) to God sometimes followed by a prayer on behalf of the intended reader, but rarely a health wish (but see 3 John 2).The gods/God to whom the author would pray or give thanks (or praise) would depend upon the author's religious and cultural background.

• Main Body of the Letter

  Following the introduction, the author would deal with the matter for which he is writing. This could vary from the mundane to the sublime, depending on the author's purpose.

• Conclusion (Greetings; farewell)

  Typically, in order to close a letter, the author may send greetings to and greetings from people known to both him and the reader(s), if this was applicable. He may also give a farewell (erroso/errosthai or [di]eutuchei) to his reader(s). In Paul's letters, instead of a closing farewell, one usually finds a benediction.
   

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