1. Introduction

Until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, most scholars held that the Gospel of John reflected a non-Palestinian religious-historical background. In spite of the great diversity of conflicting proposals as to the its background--such as early gnosticism or Hellenistic Judaism--what virtually all critical scholars agreed on was that the fourth gospel was not a product of Palestinian Judaism. (C. H. Dodd lists suggested religious-historical backgrounds for understanding John [The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel, 1-130].) Two important implications of adopting this position are a denial that John the son of Zebedee could have written the Gospel of John and a denial of the historicity of the Johannine portrayal of Jesus. Indeed, many scholars appealed to the alleged non-Palestinian Jewish nature of the gospel as proof of its non-historicity.

    But the Jews responsible for the composition of the Dead Sea Scrolls--probably Essenes--are in many respects remarkably similar conceptually to the Gospel of John. Within a few years of the publication of the first of the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars were quick to notice the religious-historical background shared by John and the scrolls (F. Braun, "L'arrirre-fond judagque du quatrirme Jvangile et la communautJ de l'alliance," RB 62 (1955) 5-44; W. Albright, "Recent Discoveries in Palestine and the Gospel of John," in The Background of the New Testament and Its Eschatology, ed. W. Davies and D. Daube; J. A. T. Robinson, "The New Look on the Fourth Gospel," in Twelve New Testament Studies (London: SCM, 1962) 94-106; J. Price, "Light from Qumran upon Some Aspects of Johannine Theology," in John and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. Charlesworth). Although some claimed direct dependence of John on one or more of the Dead Sea Scrolls, more than likely both reflect a more inclusive Palestinian Jewish conceptual world. In reaction to this development in Johannine studies, some have pointed out that there are important conceptual differences between John and the Qumran sectarian writings (see H. Teeple, "Qumran and the Origin of the Fourth Gospel"). Although such differences forestall any simple identification of John as a literary product of the Qumran community, nevertheless, the similarities are numerous enough to obviate the need to search for a religious-historical background outside of Palestinian Judaism. Actually, to interpret John against a religious-historical background other than Palestinian Judaism usually distorts the meaning of a text, since alien meanings are given to key religious terms (see, for example, the commentaries by Bultmann, Barrett and Schnackenburg).

    This means that that there are no grounds for denying authorship to John the son of Zebedee. Also, the conceptual world of Jesus' discourses in John is in keeping with one would expect of (at least) certain Palestinian Jews. The terminology and the concepts they express are fully consistent with Essene theology and possibly other Jewish circles or even with  Jewish theological understanding in first-century Palestine in general.
 

2. Religious-Historical Parallels Between John and the Qumran Sectarian Writings and Other Jewish Writings

There are certain religious-historical parallels between Jesus' words and the author's own theologizing and those texts that the Qumran community produced. Key terms with apparently similar meanings are shared by both. Actually, with respect to their meaning, these key terms are not discrete, but semantically overlap to a great extent. In some cases, they seem to be virtually interchangeable. In some cases, parallels found in non-sectarian Jewish writings will be cited.

2.1. Light and Darkness

2.1.1. In John 8:12; 9:5 Jesus refers to himself as the "light of the world" (8:12; 9:5; 11:9-10) or simply as "light" (12:35-36). In 12:36 Jesus makes reference to the "sons of light" and "believing in the light," and in 8:12 he speaks about "having the light of life." In 12:46 Jesus says that he came for the purpose of being the light. In the Prologue, Jesus as the Word is called "the light" (1:5, 7-8), who enlightens all human beings (1:7) and is appropriately called "the light of men" (1:4). Assuming that Jesus is no longer speaking in 3:16-21, the author says that Jesus as the light has come into the world and that human beings can come into the light (3:19-20).

    Light stands in dualistic opposition to and conflict with darkness. After saying that he is the light of world, Jesus says that the one who follows him does not "walk in darkness" (John 8:12); similarly Jesus declares that he, as the light, has come into the world in order that those who believe in him would not remain in the darkness (12:46). In 12:35 the disciples are warned about being overcome by darkness and walking in darkness (12:35). In the Prologue, the author sets light in contrast to darkness, which aims to overcome the light (1:5); he also refers to the possibility that men love darkness more than light, because their works are evil (3:19).

2.1.2. Light as a religious/philosophical metaphor is common to many, diverse and unrelated systems of thought. Nevertheless, this light terminology is particularly dominant in Qumran sectarian writings. A representative sample of the occurrences of this concept are as follows (using Vermes’s translation, but not following him in his use his antiquated pronouns):

A. Qumran Sectarian Writings

1. 1QH 6.17
 

The community is described in its future role as a source of light becoming an eternal fountain, resulting in the destruction of the sons of iniquity by fire.
 

2. 1QM 13.9-10
 

The community interprets itself as having been redeemed by God to be an everlasting people and having been given a lot (inheritance) of light. The community is under the direction of the angel called the Prince of light.
 

3. 1QM 13.14-16
 

At the eschatological battle God will destroy iniquity, bring darkness low and magnify light.
 

4. 1QS 3.3
 

In describing the wicked man (i.e., any man who does not join the community), the author says that the wicked man claims to seek the ways of light, but actually is looking for (and finds) darkness.
 

5. 1QS 3.19
 

From the source of light are those born of truth, whereas from the source of darkness are those born of falsehood. Light/truth and darkness/falsehood are co-ordinate pairs of concepts.
 

6. 1QS 3.20-21
 

The children of righteousness are said to walk in the ways of light, and be ruled by the prince or angel of light, whereas the sons of falsehood walk in the ways of darkness, and are ruled by the angel of darkness.
 

7. 1QS 3.25-26
 

God created two spirits or fundamental dispositions in which human beings could walk or live, the spirit of light and the spirit of darkness. All human activity originates from one of these two spirits
 

8. 1QS 11.5
 

The author sees the light that he has (in his heart) as originating in God’s marvelous mysteries; this light is parallel to justification from God’s righteousness.
 

9. In these texts, light is associated with God, having its origin in God. Human beings walk in the ways of light, insofar as they know God's requirements and do them. There are two spiritual options or fundamental dispositions available to all human beings (two spirits), the spirit of light and the spirit of darkness. (One might even go as far as to say that light is the mode of God's being, a mode of which human beings can partake.) Those who do partake of the mode of being of light are appropriately called the children of light; God’s light in the heart is parallel to justification. There is an angel of light said to rule the sons of righteousness, corresponding to an angel of darkness said to rule the children of falsehood.
 

B. The metaphors of light and darkness also occur in Palestinian Jewish writings that are non-sectarian in origin, fragments of copies of which were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls

1. 1 Enoch 92.4-5;
 

2. Testament of Naphtali 2.7, 9-10.
 

Light and darkness are used to represent two spiritual and ethical realms in which a human being may live.
 

2.2. Truth

2.2.1. The term "truth" is used in various contexts in the Gospel of John. Sometimes it occurs on Jesus' lips, while at other times the author himself uses it. The term is used very loosely and even ambiguously. Thus, it is impossible to define it with any precision. (The interpreter can sympathize with Pilate's question, "What is truth?" [18:38].)

    Jesus instructs the Samaritan woman that the true worshipper of God worships "in spirit and in truth" (4:23-24). Jesus says that John the Baptist witnessed to the truth (5:33) and that he came into the world to witness to the truth (18:37). Jesus prays also that the Father would sanctify his disciples "in (the) truth" (17:17, 19). Jesus says to Pilate that "those of the truth" hear his voice (18:37). In dispute with his opponents, Jesus teaches that the one who holds to his teaching "knows the truth" and the truth will set free (8:31-32). He also describes "the devil" (diabolos) as not remaining in the truth and as not having the truth in himself (8:44). Jesus even designates himself as the truth (14:6) and speaks about the Spirit as the Spirit of truth (14:16-17; 15:26; 16:13).

    The author of the Gospel of John describes the incarnate Word as "full of grace and truth" (1:14) and says that, whereas the Law came through Moses, "grace and truth" came through Jesus Christ (1:17). He also makes reference to "doing the truth" as a correlate to coming into the light (3:21).

    In summary, "truth" in the Gospel of John is associated intimately with God, and, when used to in relation to human beings, describes a spiritual reality or realm to which human beings have access ("to be or remain in the truth" or "to have the truth in oneself"; as such truth can be synonymous with salvation. As the object of human knowledge truth refers to correct understanding that results from a proper relationship with God.  To do the truth is to be obedient to God.  Jesus' self-designation as the truth expresses how salvation is inseparably tied to him.

2.2.2. There are many occurrences of the term "truth" in the Qumran sectarian writings, too many to list individually. As in John, the term is also used loosely and ambiguously in these texts. Generally, the term "truth" is used in the same way as in the Gospel of John, with a few exceptions.  The following are samples of the use of "truth."
 

A. 1QM 13.9-10a
 

God has decreed a destiny of light according to his truth.
 

B. 1QM 13.10b
 

All the spirits of truth (angels) are under the authority of the Prince of light.
 

C. 1QS 2.24-25a
 

The author calls his group the community of truth.
 

D. 1QS 3-4

In this long section the term "truth" is used in the service of setting forth a spiritual/ethical dualism. In 1QS 3 it is said that there are two spirits in which a person can walk, the spirits of truth and falsehood; "to walk in the spirit of truth" means to be rightly related to God (to be in the covenant), resulting in proper belief and in proper conduct. In 1QS 4 the two spirits are said to each exist in an individual person in certain pre-ordained proportions, resulting in the ways of truth or works of falsehood. (These denote the practical consequences of the two spirits.)

    One's destiny is determined by the relative proportions of the two spirits: a greater proportion of the spirit of truth will lead to righteousness, which will lead to reward, and a greater portion of the spirit of falsehood will lead to wickedness and punishment. The term "sons of truth" occurs in 1QS 4.5-6 to denote members of the community.

    The spirit of truth corresponds in some way to the angel of truth (3.24), who seems to be identical to the angel of light (3.20), standing in opposition to the angel of darkness.

    God has ordained an end for falsehood at the time of his visitation (final judgment) (4:18), when the truth will appear in the world (4.20). In 1QS 4.20 it is said that at that time God will purify all the deeds of men by his truth; in 4.21, however, it is said that God will purify man from all ungodly acts by the spirit of holiness and "sprinkle upon him the spirit of truth like waters of purification."

    The terms truth and falsehood are used absolutely. It is said that the doings of falsehood are an abomination to truth and the doings of truth an abomination to falsehood (4.17) As already indicated, at the destruction of falsehood at the time of the visitation of God, truth will then appear in the world (4.18-19). In this passage, truth and falsehood seem to represent or at least correspond to the two ages, the first is dominated by wicked/false beings; the age in the future will be dominated by righteous/truthful people.
 

E. 1QS 8.5-6
 

The council of the community is establish "in truth" and its members are called "a witness to truth at judgment."

F. The clause "to do the truth" occurs in CD 1.5; 1QS 1.5; 5.3; 8:2, with the meaning of to obey the Torah.

(The Greek equivalent of the phrase "to do the truth" also occurs in Test Benj 10.3; Tobit 4.6 with the same meaning.)

2.3. Life

A. In the Gospel of John, Jesus refers to himself as having life in himself (5:26) or as being the life (11:25; 14:6); he also refers to himself as giving life to others (5:21; 6:33). He says that the Spirit gives life and that his words are Spirit and they give life (6:63). Jesus also says that he is the bread of God from heaven/bread of life (6:32-33, 35, 48, 50, 58) and he talks about the necessity of eating his flesh and drinking his blood in order to have eternal life (6:54-57). Jesus also calls himself the light of life (8:12) (cf. 1:4), and, when conversing with the Samaritan woman, he says that he is the source of living water that bubbles up to eternal life (4:13-14).  It is clear, therefore, that life as used by Jesus in the Gospel of John means eternal life, and Jesus ties its possibility to himself as its mediator.
 

2.3.1. In the Qumran sectarian writings life is used literally, but also metaphorically:

A. 1QS 2.2b-3
 

In this blessing given to all the "men of the lot of God" the phrase "with the understanding of life," i.e., "with life-giving understanding" occurs.
 

B. 1QS 3.6b-7a
 

The phrase "the light of life" (the same phrase the occurs in John 8:12) occurs, meaning the light that is characterized by life, gives life.
 

C. Life in these phrases mean spiritual life, a certain quality of life that results from being rightly related to God; there is, however, no fully-developed doctrine of eternal life in the Dead Sea Scrolls, though it is implied in places.
 

2.3.2. In the post-biblical texts written in Greek, but reflecting a Palestinian background [with the exception of some aspects of 4 Macc] the term "life" and its cognates can denote eternal life

A. 4 Macc 7:19
 

The patriarchs and martyrs "live to God," meaning that they live eternally.
 

B. 4 Macc 15:3
 

In this passage, the term eternal life occurs.
 

C. Pss. Sol 15:13
 

This passage refers to eternal life by using the verb "to live."
 

2.4. Predestination

2.4.1. In John 6:37, 39, 44, 65 Jesus teaches that those the Father has given him will come to him and no one comes to him unless the Father draws him or enables him. Jesus also distinguishes between those who belong to God and those who do not; the former hear the words of God, whereas the latter does not (8:47). Similarly, Jesus says to Pilate that those of the truth hear his voice (18:37). Speaking metaphorically, Jesus compares those who follow him to his sheep, who know their shepherd's voice (10:3-4). Jesus also describes himself as the good shepherd who knows his sheep (10:14); Jesus knows his sheep, who listen to his voice and follow him (10:27). In 15:16 Jesus states pointedly that the disciples did not chose him, but he chose them, in order that they bear fruit. In 12:40 the author of the Gospel of John, quoting Isa 6:10, explains unbelief as the result of God's blinding the eyes and hardening the heart.

2.4.2. There is a predestinarian outlook in the Qumran sectarian writings. God has foreordained all things, both good and evil (1QS 3.15b-17a, 22-23; 4.23-25; CD 2.6-10; 1QH 1; 10.9); consequently, the members of this community understood themselves as having been graciously chosen by God (CD 2.6-10).  In his sovereignty, God determines who will be righteous and who will be wicked.  In 1QH 15.14-21 the author confesses that God has created the righteous man, and "from the womb established him for the time of grace, in order that he keep your covenant and walk in all (your ways)" (15.14b-15; see 13.15).  Conversely, the author prays, "The wicked you have created for [the time] of wrath, from the womb you have predestined them for the day of annihilation" (15.17; see also 4.38b).  The wicked are then defined as those who manifest their wickedness as disobedience to God. Similarly, in 1QH 17.21 it is asserted of God, "You [establish] the way of whomseover you choose and with understanding you constrain him in order that he not sin against you." The righteous become what they are through God's prior action, "establishing their way," and preventing them from reverting back to the status of their original wickedness (see also 7.34-35).
 

3. Conclusion

The Gospel of John is at home in Palestinian Judaism, as shown by the numerous conceptual parallels to Qumran sectarian writings. Thus, the attempt to attribute the origin of John in non-Palestinian conceptual world, thereby repudiating its historicity and denying its apostolic origin, is rendered unnecessary and invalid.

    The parallels between the Gospel of John and the Qumran Sectarian writngs as well as other, non-sectarian Jewish writings and the assumption that John represents Jesus’ teaching accurately means that Jesus used concepts similar to those circulating at least among some Jewish religious groups. It is possible that the conceptions expressed in these documents circulated more widely among Jews of the second-Temple period than is currently thought, so that these concepts may have been generally accepted and later dropped out of favor with the early rabbis. If these concepts were genuinely sectarian, however, being held by only a minority of Jews, then Jesus’ theology has affinities with this form of Judaism.