Angels

Bietenhard, Die himmlischen Welt im Urchristentum und Spätjudentum; Bousset and Gressmann, Die Religion des Judentums im späthellenistichen Zeitalter; Davidson, Angels at Qumran; Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord; Newsom, "Angels," Anchor Bible Dictionary; id., Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition; Hollander and de Jonge, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Commentary; Rowland, The Open Heaven; Segal, Two Powers in Heaven; Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology.

In the Old Testament there are several terms used for what later is commonly referred to as angels. These heavenly beings are called "sons of God" (benê [ha] elohîm) (Gen 6:2, 4; Job 1:6; 2:1) or sons of gods (benê 'elîm) (Ps 29:1; 89:7[6]); such designations describe their unique relation to God in distinction to human beings and other created beings. It is probable that, in some cases, angels are also called "gods" ('elohîm) (Ps 8:6; 82:1, 6; 97:7-8; 138:1). They are called "holy ones" (qedôšîm) in Job 5:1; 15:15; Ps 89:6, 8 [5, 7]; Dan 4:13 in order to describe their sanctity. When considered with respect to their functions, angels are referred to as "servants" (mešaretim) (Ps 103:21), "prince" (šar) (Josh 5:14) and "host" or "army" (tsaba') (Ps 89:9 [8]; 103:21). The most common designation of angels, which likewise describes their function, is messenger (mal'ak) of Yahweh / God. (The LXX translates mal'ak and other Hebrew terms for these heavenly beings as aggelos [see bene [ha] 'elohîm in Gen 6:2; Deut 32:8; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; 'elohîm in Ps 8:6; 97:7; 138:1 and šar in Dan 10:21; 21:1.) It should also be noted that there is a type of heavenly being referred to as a seraph (Isa 6:2, 6). Each seraph is described as having a face, hands, feet and six wings. They stand or hover in the presence of Yahweh as his attendants, praising him (Isa 6:3), and also serve as his agents (Isa 6:6-7). They seem to be distinguished from the other heavenly beings because the latter tend to have the appearance of human beings. (There are also cherubim mentioned in the Old Testament, but these beings seem to be more like some type of heavenly animal or at least with the appearance of an animal [Gen 3:24; Exod 25:22; Num 7:89; 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 22:1; 2 Kgs 19:15; 1 Chron 13:6; Pss 18:11[10]; 80:2[1]; 99:1; Isa 37:16; Ezek 1, 10; 28:14. See the references to cherubim in second-Temple texts: 1 En 20:7; 61:10; 71:1; 2 En 21:1; Sib. Or. 3.1; Sir 49:8; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.15; 4Q405 frgs. 20-21-22, col. 2.3, 7, 8; 11QShirShabb 5-6.8.)

Angels in the Old Testament interact with human beings in various ways. Jacob has a dream in which he sees a staircase on which angels of God (mal'aky 'elohîm) are ascending and descending, symbolic of the inteaction between heaven and earth (Gen 28:10-12). As messengers, angels announce births. In Gen 16:11-12, an angel of Yahweh announces to Hagar that she would give birth to Ishmael. In Gen 18:1-15 it is said that Yahweh appears to Abraham and Sarah in order to announce the birth of Isaac, but from the context it is clear that Yahweh appears indirectly through three men who apparently are angels. Likewise, in Judg 13:3-5, an angel of Yahweh appears to the wife of Manoah to announce the imminent birth of Samson: "Then the angel of Yahweh appeared to the woman and said to her, 'Behold now, you are barren and have borne no children, but you shall conceive and give birth to a son'" (13:5). Angels also give instructions to human beings. An angel of Yahweh appears to Elijah and instructs him to go up and meet the messengers of the king of Samaria; the same angel then tells him to go with the captain sent to him (2 Kgs 1:3, 15; see 1 Kgs 13:18). Angels also commission people to different tasks as determined by Yahweh. An angel of Yahweh appears to Moses in the burning bush; afterwards Yahweh tells Moses, presumably through the angel or as the angel, what he has planned for him to do (Exod 3:2-10). Similarly, an angel of Yahweh appears to Gideon and explains to him Yahweh's plan for him to become a savior of Israel (Judg 6:11-24).

An angel may appear in a crisis in order to help a person or the nation of Israel. An angel of Yahweh appears to Hagar and instructs her to return to Sarah (Gen 16:9), and an angel of Yahweh prevents Abraham from killing his son Isaac (22:11-12). In Num 22:31-35, an angel of Yahweh appears to the prophet Balaam to prevent him from sinning against Yahweh, and in Judg 2:1-5 an angel of Lord appears in order to rebuke the Israelites for not obeying Yahweh by driving out the inhabitants of the promised land. Angels also function to protect or help a person or the nation of Israel (Gen 24:40; 48:16; Exod 14:19-20; 23:20, 23; 32:34; Num 20:16; 1 Kgs 19:5-8; Pss 34:8 [7]; 91:11). They are also appointed to bring punishment (see Pss 35:5-6; 78:49). Two angels go to Sodom in order to destroy the city after warning Lot to leave. (Gen 19). Similarly, in Num 22:33, the angel says to Balaam that he would have killed him if his donkey did not turn away, and Yahweh sends an angel to bring a plague upon Israel because of David's sin (2 Sam 24 = 1 Chron 21). There is a heavenly being mentioned in Exod 12:23 identified as the "destroyer" whose assignment is to kill all the firstborn of the Egyptians. Finally, an angel of Yahweh puts to death 185,000 Assyrian soldiers (2 Kgs 19:35 = Isa 37:36).

In the Old Testament, there are two conceptions of how Yahweh relates to the angels under his authority, who are depicted as a single group (Gen 28:12; 32:1-2; Deut 33:2; Pss 29:2; 89:6-9). First, the angels are called collectively the council of Yahweh (`adath 'el) (Ps 82:1), the assembly (sôd) of Yahweh / Eloah (Jer 23:18; Job 15:8) or the assembly (qahal) / community (sôd) of the holy ones (Ps 89:6 [7], 8 [9]). To refer to the angels in this way implies that heaven is being conceived as a royal court with Yahweh as its king. Sometimes prophets are said to stand in the council of Yahweh for the purpose of receiving his word (Jer 23:18, 22; Isa 6). Angels are renowned for their knowledge, presumably because they are part of the council of Yahweh (2 Sam 14:17, 29; 19:28). The other conception used to explain how Yahweh relates to the angels is as the commander of an army; the angels collectively are depicted as the army of Yahweh (Ps 103:20-21). A common title for God is Yahweh of hosts, and Joshua is said to encounter an angelic figure who identifies himself as the prince of the army of Yahweh (Josh 5:14). In 1 Kgs 22:19-22, the prophet Micaiah has a vision of Yahweh sitting on a throne in heaven surrounded by the "army of heaven" on both sides (see 2 Chron 18:18-21); Yahweh asks for a volunteer from the army of heaven to go to deceive the false prophet Zedekiah. (This volunteer is said to be a spirit.) (See also Job 1:6; 2:1; Isa 6:1-5; Dan 7:9-10.)

In a few Old Testament narratives an angel of Yahweh (mal'ak Yahweh) is portrayed as both distinct from Yahweh and seemingly identified with him (Gen 16:7-14). Hagar is visited by "an angel of Yahweh" with whom she converses (Gen 16:9, 10, 11); in the conversation the angel refers to Yahweh in the third person (Gen 16:11). Then quite unexpectedly this angel speaks as if he is Yahweh (Gen 16:10) and Hagar addresses the angel as if he is Yahweh (Gen 16:13) (see Gen 21:15-21; 22:11-12; 31:11-13; Exod 3:2-10; Judg 2:1-5; 6:11-24).

There are several references to angels from biblical texts from the exilic period. In keeping with the role of angels as constituting the army of Yahweh, the prophet Ezekiel refers to destroying angels. In Exek 8:1, the prophet sees a heavenly being whom he describes as follows: "A figure having the appearance of a man; from his waist and downward there was the appearance of fire, and from his waist and upward the appearance of brightness, like the appearance of glowing metal" (This description resembles that of the "glory of Yahweh" in Ezek 1:27-28.) This heavenly being explains to Ezekiel how Jerusalem is to be destroyed because of its sins. Six other heavenly beings resembling men and bearing "destroying weapons" then execute the order to destroy the city (Ezek 9:1-2). Another heavenly being described as being clothed in linen and carrying a writing case at his side is found in Ezekiel; his task is to record those who are to be spared from the slaughter. Later, in a vision, Ezekiel is taken on a tour through the new Temple by an angel described as "a man whose appearance was like that of bronze, with a line of flax and a measuring rod in his hand (Ezek 40:3).

In the Book of Daniel, an angel protects the three young men and actually appears in the furnace with them (Dan 3:24-28). Similarly, Daniel says that God sent his angel to shut the mouths of the lions (Dan 6:22). Angels also provide interpretations of Daniel's visions (Dan 7-12). Reference is made to Daniel's approaching "one of those standing there" (Dan 7:16) and asking for an interpretation of his vision; this one approached by Daniel is no doubt one of the heavenly court, an angel. On another occasion, Daniel receives an interpretation of his vision from the angel Gabriel, in response to whose presence Daniel falls prostrate (Dan 8:16-17). This same Gabriel appears to Daniel to explain to him that "seventy-sevens are decreed for your people" (Dan 9:21, 24), which is a pesher-type interpretation of Jeremiah's prophecy of seventy years of exile (Jer 25:11-12; 29:10). Likewise, Daniel sees another heavenly being decribed as follows: "A certain man dressed in linen, whose waist was girded with a belt of pure gold of Uphaz. His body also was like beryl, his face had the appearance of lightning, his eyes were like flaming torches, his arms and feet like the gleam of polished bronze, and the sound of his words like the sound of a tumult" (Dan 10:5-6). He explains to Daniel that he has come in response to Daniel's prayer for understanding, but has been delayed twenty-one days because of his struggle with another heavenly being known as "the prince of Persia" (Dan 10:12-13a). He then reveals to Daniel the course of future events relating to Israel. In addition to Gabriel, the angel Michael is mentioned in the Book of Daniel (10:13, 21; 12:1). He is called "one of the chief princes," the prince who protects Israel and is depicted as a warrior fighting against another heavenly being known as "the prince of Persia."

An Aramaic term used in the Book of Daniel to denote angels is watchers (`îrîn) (Dan 4:10 [13], 14 [17], 20 [23]). Each of these heavenly beings is called by the double name "watcher and holy one" (`îr weqadîsh), which denotes one type of heavenly being not two. The term "watcher" probably derives from the verb "to be awake" or "to be vigilant," so that the implication of calling the angels "watchers" is that they are constantly on watch as sentinels for Yahweh.

Finally, the prophet Zechariah has a vision of "a man...riding on a red horse, and...standing among the myrtle trees, which were in the ravine, with red, brown and white horses behind him" (Zech 1:8). The man standing among the myrtle trees in the vision is identified as an angel of Yahweh (mal'ak Yahweh) to whom other angels who range about the earth report (Zech 1:7-17). (These same angels are described later as four chariots pulled by four differently-colored horses [Zech 6:1-8]. These heavenly beings are seemingly identified with the four winds in Zech 6:5 [see Ps 104:4].) It is he who explains the vision to Zechariah as well as other visions in Zech 1-6. (In Zech 2:3-4, the prophet sees another angel who gives instructions to the angel speaking with Zachariah.) This angel of Yahweh also delivers a charge from Yahweh to the High Priest Joshua (Zech 3:6-7).

As in the Old Testament, the most common name in the second-Temple period for what are commonly called "angels" is "messenger" (Heb. ml'k; Aram. ml'k'; Gk. aggelos) (passim). They are also referred to as "holy ones" (see Tobit 12:15; 1 En 1:9; 12.2; 14.23, 25; 39.4-5; 47.2, 4; 81:5; 106:19; 1QS 11.7-8; 1QH 19[11].12; 1QM 12.1, 4; CD 20.8; 1QapGen 2:1, 20; Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice [see 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.17; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.24, 31]; Ps. Sol. 17:43; T. Levi 3:3; 1Q22 4.1) (see also 1 En 9:3 "holy ones of heaven"). More frequently than in the Old Testament (see 1 Kgs 22:21), in the second-Temple period, angels are called "spirits" (rwchwt) (see Jub. 15:31; 1 En 15:4; 1QH 9[1].11; 11[3].22-23; 18[10].8; 19[11].13; 1QM 12:9; 4Q403 1.38; 2.7-8, 10; 4Q286 frg. 2.1; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.8, 9; 4Q405 frg. 22.12; frg. 23, col. 1.9-10). A common title for God in the Similitudes of Enoch (1 En 37-71) is "Lord of Spirits," where "spirits" refers to angels. Consistent with the Old Testament, angels are sometimes called elohim (4Q400 frg. 2.2, 5; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.32-33). In dependence on Ps 82:1, the author of 4QMelchizedek describes Melchizedek and other heavenly beings like him as elohim (11QMelch 2.10). Angels are also called "honored ones" (nkbdym) (1QH 10.8-10); 4Q400 frg. 2.2 = 4Q401 frg. 14, col. 1.8). Finally, as in the Old Testament, angels are called "servants" (mshrthym) (see Ps 103:21) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.4; frg. 1, col. 1.8; 4Q401 frg. 15.3; 4Q405 frg. 23, col. 1.3; LAB 42:10).

Discontinous with the Old Testament, in the second-Temple period, angels are known as elim ('lym) ("gods") (but see "sons of gods" in Ps 29:1; 89:7[6]). This occurs in the War Scroll (1.10, 11; 14.15-16; 15.14; 17.7; 18.6-7), Thanksgiving Hymns (15[7].28; 18[10].8) and Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice (4Q400 frg. 1, col 1.20; col. 2.17; 4Q503 48-50.4; 1Q22 4.1; 4Q400 frg. 2, col. 1.7; 4Q401 frg. 14, col. 1.5; frg. 16, col. 1.1; 4Q401 frg. 2, col. 1.2; 4Q402 frg. 4, col. 1.8; frg. 9, col. 1.2; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.21, 26; col. 2.26; 4Q404 frg. 19.1-3; 4Q405 frg. 14-15, col. 1.3) 11QMelchizedek (2.14) and Ages of Creation (4Q180-81) (4Q181 frg. 1.4). In the Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice, the term elim is frequently followed by a nomen rectum, a word in genitive construct that qualifies the elim: "elim of light" (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.35); "elim of knowledge" (4Q400 frg. 2, col. 1; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.31; 4Q405 frg. 23, col. 1.8); "elim of majesty" (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.38); "elim of loftiness" (4Q403 frg. 1, col 1.33); "elim of eternity" (4Q405 frg. 19.3) (see also the phrase "elim of purity" in 4Q286 frg. 7, col. 1.6). Other new names for angels in the second-Temple period include "glorious ones" (nkbdym) (1QH 18[10].8; 2 En 21:1, 3) and "sons of heaven" (bny šmym) (1 En 13.8; 14.3; 1QapGen 2.5, 16; 5.4; 1QH 11[3].22; 1QS 4.22; 11.8; 4Q181 frg. 1, col. 1.2; 11QMelch col. 2.5?). They are also sometimes called "mighty ones" (gbwrym), which has military overtones (1QH 11[3].35-36;13[5].21; 16[8].11-12; 18[10].34-35; 1QM 15.14; 4Q402 frg. 1.4; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.21-22; 4Q405 frg. 13.5).

In some texts from the second-Temple period, the term "watcher" ('r) is no longer simply a synonym for angel, as it is in the Book of Daniel. Rather, the term denotes both angels generally and more specifically those angels who have rebelled against God by becoming involved sexually with human women. In the Book of Watchers, there occurs the compound term "watcher and holy one" (1 En 22:6) ('yri wqdysh') (This compound term has have been reduced in Ethiopic [Ryl] and Greek translation to "angel" [ml'k and aggelos].) It is clear from the context that this angel known as a "watcher and holy one" is Raphael, one of the four archangels. (See also 1 En 1:2 where, based on 4QEn^a frg. 1, col. 1.3, the compound term "watchers and holy ones" probably occured; the extant text reads [ ] wqdyshyn.) Likewise, the statement in 1 En 12:2 "And his [Enoch's] activities had to do with the watchers, and his days were with the holy ones" refers to Enoch's dwelling and association with angels in heaven after he was taken from the earth. ("Watchers" and "holy ones" do not refer to two distinct groups of heavenly beings but to the same group.) Clearly, the term watcher is being used in this context to mean angel in the general sense. Along the same lines, in 1 En 93:2 (4QEn^g frg. 1, col. 3.21) there occurs a reference to the revelation that Enoch received through "the word of the watchers and holy ones" (mmr `yryn wqdshyn), which clearly describes angels in general. It is also noteworthy that the seven archangels are said to be in the Ethiopic translation "the holy angels who watch" (1 En 20:1); it is probable that the original Aramaic was "watchers and holy ones." (The Greek text has "angels of power" [aggeloi tôn dunameôn].) Related terms for heavenly beings in general are "watchers of heaven" (1 En 12:4; 13:10; 15:4; 91:15; see 16.2 and "eternal watchers" (1 En 14:1). Nevertheless, the term "watcher," as used in the Book of Watchers, refers more frequently to the angels who disobey God by descending from heaven and taking human wives (based on Gen 6:1-4), so that de facto it comes to denote this more restricted group of "watchers" (see 1 En 1:5; 10:7, 9, 15; 12.3-4; 13:10; 15:2, 9; 16:2). For this reason, it comes as no surprise to discover that the term "watcher" exclusively denotes disobedient angels in other second-Temple texts. In CD 2.18, the watchers are used as a negative example for the members of the community: "Walking after the stubbornness of heart the watchers of heaven fell." In Jub. 4:15, it is explained that Mahalalel calls his son Jared because "in his day the angels of the Lord, who were called watchers, came down to the earth in order to teach the sons of man, and perform judgment and uprightness upon the earth." (The name Jared derives from the Hebrew verb yrd, which means "to come down.") Of course, instead of doing what they were assigned to do, these watchers take for themselves human wives, thereby defliling themselves (see Jub. 5). Disobedient angels identified as watchers are also mentioned in Genesis Apocyphon: they have such a reputation for impregnating human women that Noah's father, Lamech, wonders whether Noah may have been conceived by the action of one of them, for Noah is such an extraordinary-looking child (2:1, 16). Other references to watchers as disobedient angels include 4Q534 2.16, 18; T. Reub. 5.6-7; T. Naph. 3.5.

According to the author of the Book of Jubilees, angels were created on the first day of creation: "For on the first day he created the heavens which are above and the earth and the waters and all the spirits which serve before him" (Jub. 2:2). Similarly, in 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.35 God is said to be the creator of angels, who are called everlasting spirits (see 4Q402 frg. 4.12 = MasShirShabb frg. 1.2: God as creator of all things) and in 1QH 5.13 [13.8] it is asserted that God created all the angels. As created beings, angels are conceived as dwelling with God in heaven. According to the War Scroll, there is "a multitude of holy ones in the heavens" and "the armies of angels are in your [God's] holy habitation" (12.1; see 4QM1 frgs. 5-6, col. 1.1) (These two clauses are in synonymous parallelism, so that the "holy ones are the armies of angels and the heavens are God's habitation.) In 1 En 15.3-7 angels are differentiated from human beings insofar as they dwell in "the high, holy, and eternal heaven." Similarly, when he was taken from the earth to heaven Enoch is said to have been dwelling among the angels (1 En 106:6-7). Angels are also said to be "holy, spiritual, living the eternal life and immortal for all generations of the world" (1 En 15.4). This explains why their sin of having sexual relations with human women on earth was so grievious a transgression. To do so violated the natural order and resulted in their defilement: "You have defiled yourselves with the blood of women" (1 En 15:4).

In the second-Temple period, angels are more clearly differentiated from one another in rank and function than in the Old Testament. (In Dan 10:13, Michael identifies himself as "one of the chief princes [šarim]"). The use of term "princes" (nšy'y) to describe angels in Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice implies a hierarchy of angels, since to be a prince requires having others under one's authority (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 2.14; frg. 3, col. 2.2; 4Q401 frg. 23.1; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.1, 10, 21; col. 2.20-21; 4Q405 frg. 13.2-3, 4-5, 7). The angel with whom Jacob wrestled is identified as the angel who is in charge of hymns, which seems to imply a differentiation of function and rank (LAB 18:6). In 1 En 61:10, part of the Similitudes of Enoch, there are five types of angels differentiated: cherubim, serphim, ophanim, angels of power and angels of the principalities. How they differ from one another is not explained, but presumably the five types have different ranks and/or functions. Similarly, in T. Levi 3, different orders of angels are identified as occupying different heavens; the third to the sixth heavens are occupied by different classes of angels. The third heaven contains "the powers of the hosts" (hai dunameis tôn parembolôn), a class of angel assigned the task of bringing punishment on Beliar and his hosts on the day of judgment (3:3). In the fourth heaven are found two classes of angels called "thrones" (thronoi) and "authorities" (exousiai), who offer praises to God continually (3:8) (see 1 En 61:10; 2 En 20:1). The fifth heaven is inhabited by those angels who answer to the angels of the presence: "There are the angels who bear the answers to the angels of the presence of the Lord" (3:7). This angelic function seems to be that of relaying human responses to God to the angels of the presence (see Tobit 12:12, 15). In the sixth heaven are found "the angels of the presence of the Lord" (hoi aggeloi tou prosôpou kuriou), who function as angelic priests (3:5-6). (In the highest heaven dwells "great glory" or God [3:4].)

The author of the Book of Jubilees portrays angels as existing in a hierarchical structure. Two of the higher ranks of angels are called “the angels of the presence” (Jub. 1:27, 29; 2:1-2, 18; 15:27; 31:14) (ml'k pnym) and “the angels of sanctification” (Jub. 2:2, 18; 15:27), who are born or created circumcised (Jub. 2:2, 18; 15:27). (The nation of Israel as circumcised is thereby in association with God and his holy angels.) Presumably, the angels of the presence correspond to those angels by the same name that in T. Levi 3:5-6 occupy the sixth heaven. Other references to the class of angels known as "angels of the presence" occur in 1QSb 4:25-26 "And may you be like an angel of the presence in the abode of holiness" and in 1QH 14[6].13 "Together with the angels of the presence." Similarly, in T. Judah 25.2, the patriarch says that the angel of the presence (ho aggelos tou prosôpou) blessed him, whereas the Lord blessed Levi. His point is that in terms of rank the angel of the presence is just below God himself. In Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice there are references to "ministers of the presence" (mshrthy pnym) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.4) and "ministers of the presence of the king" (mshrthy pny mlk) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.8). It is probable that this elite group of angels is the same as the angels of the presence in other second-Temple texts.

In several second-Temple texts a select group of either four or seven angels is identified and sometimes its members are named. In the Book of Watchers, there are four angels mentioned who appear to occupy the highest rank among the heavenly beings: Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel (1 En 9:1). The four assume distinct roles in bringing punishment to the antediluvian world (1 En 10:1-3). These four angels reappear in the Similitudes of Enoch as four angels who apparently are leaders of all other angels: "And that Head of Days came with Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel, thousands and ten thousands of angels without number" (1 En 71:12). In 1QM 9.14-16 the names of four angels are to be written upon the shields of the towers: "On the first Mich[ae]l [ ...on the third] Sariel, on the fourth Raphael." What the name of the second angel was unknown because of a lacuna in in the text. Differently, however, in 1 En 90:21, part of the Animal Apocalypse (an allegorical account of history focusing on Israel from Adam until the eschaton), seven angels—depicted as white men—assume the role as eschatological judges. These seem to be a special class of ruling angels. Earlier in the Book of Watchers there occurs a list of seven angels along with their functions:

And these are the names of the holy angels who watch. Uriel, one of the holy angels, who is over the world and over Tartarus. Raphael, one of the holy angels, who is over the spirits of men. Raguel, one of the holy angels who takes vengeance on the world of the luminaries. Michael, one of the holy angels, he who is set over the best part of mankind [Israel] and over chaos. Sariel (Saraqael), one of the holy angels, who is set over the spirits, who sin in the spirit. Gabriel, one of the holy angels, who is over Paradise and the serpents and the Cherubim. Remiel, one of the holy angels, whom God set over those who rise [from the dead] (1 En 20:1-7; see 81:5).

Of the seven angels two are found in the other list of four angels in the Book of Watchers: Gabriel and Raphael (1 En 9:1). (It should be noted that, although there are seven angels mentioned in 1 En 20:1-3, references to only the first four occur in the rest of the Book of Watchers, which suggests that de facto there are only four principal angels.) In T. Levi 8:2, Levi has a vision of seven angels, described as "seven men in white clothing," who inform him that he has the right to assume the priesthood in Israel. Seven principal angels appear in other second-Temple texts. In Tobit 12:15, the angel Raphael describes himself as one of the seven holy angels who present the prayers of the saints and enter into the presence of the glory of the Holy One. In 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.1-29 and 4Q405 frg. 13.4-7, there are differentiated not only seven chief angelic princes (nshy'y rwsh) but also seven deputy angelic princes (nshy'y mshnh). These two groups of seven angels seem to occupy the two highest ranks of angels and may be the equivalent of the angels of the presence and the angels of sanctification found in the Book of Jubilees.

In some second-Temple texts, there is identified one angel who has authority over all other angels. The angel who appears to Aseneth identifies himself as "the chief of the house of the Lord and commander of the whole host of the Most High" (Jos. As. 14:7). He remains unnamed, however. There are references to an angel known as the "angel of peace" in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (T. Dan 6.5; T. Asher 6.5; T. Benj. 6:1; see Isa 33:7). This angel seems to be the principal or ruling angel. In Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice, there is evidence that there is one angel presiding over all other ranks of angels. The use of the singular "leader" (nshy') in 4Q401 frg. 23.1 and "prince" (šr) in 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.23 suggests the existence of such a heavenly being. Similarly, 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.24 has the phrase "head of priests of inner sanctum" (rwsh mkwhn qwrb), which implies that one of the angels of the inner sanctum has authority over the rest. There are also two probable references to Melchizedek as one of these heavenly beings in Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice: [mlky]tsdq kwhn (4Q401 frg. 11.3) and [ ]ky tsdq (4Q401 frg. 22.3). If these two references indeed are to Melchizedek then it is arguable that he is this one angel who has authority over the others. Indeed, in 11QMelchizedek, the angel Melchizedek functions as the eschatologial savior of Jews who identify themselves as the “inheritance of Melchizedek” (2.5) and "men of the lot of Melchizedek" (2.8). This unique salvation-historical role implies his preminence among the angels.

In 4Q177 (Catena) 4.12, it is said that "the angel of truth will ransom the sons of light from the power of Belial." This one angel acts in order to protect the righteous from the pernicious influence of his evil counterpart. The implication seems to be that this angel has authority over all other angels. Similarly, in the War Scroll (16.13-17.9), the angel Michael is portrayed as leading the angelic army in support of the sons of light: "He has set an everlasting help to the lot whom he has [re]deemed through the might of the majestic angel (ml'k h'dyr). (He will set) the authority of Michael in everlasting light.... He will exalt over the elim the authority of Michael and the dominion of Israel over all flesh" (1QM 17.6-7; see 4QM1 frg. 11, col. 1.18-19). As the "majestic angel," Micahel has authority over the other angels, who are known as the elim ("gods"). The angel Michael is also probably identical to the figure called "the prince of light" (šr m'wr) under whose authority are all the "spirits of truth" (rwchy 'mth). His task is to assist Israel, to whom has been given a destiny of light (1QM 13:10). The evil counterpart to the prince of light is Belial, who has authority over "angels of destruction" (1QM 16.13-17.9).

It is probable that the heavenly being known as the "prince of lights" (šr 'wrym) found in the Two-Ways Teaching in the Rule of the Community (3.13–4.26) is to be identified with the "prince of light" mentioned in the War Scroll. It is said that somehow associated with the "spirit of truth," which is a human disposition or propensity, is the "prince of lights" (3.20) or angel of truth (ml'k 'mt) (3.24), whereas the angel of darkness (ml'k chwšk) (3.21) is associated with the "spirit of deceit," the opposite human disposition or propensity. In which spirit or basic disposition a person “walks” depends on which of these two spiritual beings holds sway over him. Those who walk "in the ways of light," the sons of righteousness, are under the dominion of the prince of lights and those who walk “in the ways of darkness” are under the dominion of the angel of darkness (3.20–21). In effect, the prince of lights rules those in the Qumran community, while those on the outside are by default consigned to the angel of darkness. AIong the same lines, in Visions of Amram, Amram has a vision of the two opposing angels who have been given control over all the sons of Adam. Amram asks the good angel about “this watcher," i.e., the evil angel (4Q544 frg. 2, col. 3.12). The watcher about which he is inquiring is then identified as "king of evil" along with other names that are now lost (4Q544 frg. 2) and so is the counterpart to good angel with whom he is conversing.

There is a tendency in the Book of Jubilees, a rewriting of Gen 1-Exod 12, to insert angels into the biblical narrative; in some cases, angels are substituted for God. In the retelling of the story of the Tower of Babel, both Yahweh and some of his angels descend to earth (Jub.10:22-23), and the angels are involved in making a covenant with Abraham and earlier with Noah (Jub.14:20). In Jub. 18:10, instead of Yahweh, an angel of the presence speaks to Abraham when he was about to sacrifice his son Isaac, and in Jub.19:3, the author adds that angels were testing Abraham after the death of Sarah. Different from Genesis, an angel descends from heaven and gives Jacob seven tablets on which is recorded future events in Israel's history: "And he saw in a vision of the night, and behold an angel descended from heaven with seven tablets in his hands, and he gave them to Jacob, and he read them and knew all that was written therein which would befall him and his sons throughout all the ages" (Jub. 32:21). Along the same lines, in Jub. 41:24, angels appear to Judah in a dream after his repentance and tell him that he has been forgiven and in Jub. 48:2, it is the angel of the presence who delivers Moses from Mastema and performs the signs and wonders in Egypt. Likewise, in Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (Biblical Antiquities), a re-telling of biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul, angels are introduced into the biblical narrative. In LAB 11:5, it is said that angels were present with Yahweh when he gave the Law, and angels are depicted as functioning as guardians (LAB 11:12; 59:4). In LAB 15:5, God says that if Israel is disobedient to the Law that he will "will send the angel of my anger upon them to break up their bodies with fire in the wilderness. And I will give commandment to my angels who watch over them that they pray not for them." Angels are said to have mourned over the death of Moses (LAB 19:12, 16) and, in LAB 32:1-2, angels are even jealous of Abraham's special status before God: "And all the angels were jealous of him, and the worshipping hosts envied him." When the witch of Endor brings Samuel up from the grave two angels are said to have been present leading him (LAB 64:6). There are even four angels mentioned by name in this text: Ingethel, identified as being "in charge of hidden things" and who "works invisibly" (LAB 27:10), Zeruel (LAB 27:10) (= Zervihel in LAB 61:5), said to be "in charge of might in warfare," Nathaniel, said to be "in charge of fire" (LAB 38:3), and Fadahel (LAB 42:10).

As in the Old Testament, in the second-Temple period, angels are portrayed as constituting the council of God. Reference is made to "the congregation of the gods [and council of the holy] ones" (1Q22 frg. 4.1) and "the council of the gods" (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 2.9). In 1QH 13[5].21, it is said about God that "wonderful heroes are your servants," by which is meant angels. In the Book of Watchers, Enoch has a vision of the throne of God upon which the glory of the Great One resides (1 En 14.8-25). There are around him innumerable angels who are prevented from approaching God by a blazing fire emanating from the throne. It seems, however, that some angels (probably principal angels who are were originally designated as "watchers and holy ones") do approach God in his throne room (which is actually the holy of holies in heaven) but never turn away from God; these angels function as God's continuous attendants (Ezek 1.13, 15-18; 10.6, 9-13 has had an influence on 1 En 14.18-19). Likewise, in the Similitudes of Enoch, the antediluvian patriarch has a vision of thousands of angels standing before the glory of the Lord of the spirits (1 En 40:1-7). The four archangels stood on the four sides of the glory of the Lord of spirits uttering praise (As already indicated these four angels were Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Phanuel).

Consistent with the depiction of the angels as God's heavenly council is the description of God as "king of elohim" (mlk 'lwhym) (4Q402 frg. 3, col. 2.12). Similarly, in 1QH 18[10].8-10 , God is said to be "prince of elim" (šr 'lym), "king of honored ones" (mlk nkbdym) and "lord of every spirit" ('dwn lkwl rwch). Rather than actually giving God counsel, however, the purpose of angels in heaven is to praise God continuously. In Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice, angels exist to praise God (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.30-31); in fact, in 4Q405 frg. 23, col. 2.11-12 it is the "chiefs of the realm of the holy ones" who are also the "chiefs of praise-offering" (see T. Levi 3:8; Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice; see 1 En 61:10-12). According to the Hymn to the Creator from cave eleven at Qumram, God shows the angels what they have not previously known: "He separated light from darkness established the dawn with the knowledge of his heart." In response to this revealed knowledge it is said, "Then the angels saw and sang for he showed them what they had not known" (11QPs col. 16.11-12). It seems that the angels function to acknowledge the greatness of God's knowledge and praise him for it.

As in the Old Testament, in addition to being the council of God, angels also constitute the army of God: "your [God's] army of spirits" (1QH 5.14 [13.8] and "holy army" (1QH 11[3].22). There is also a probable reference to the involvement of angels in the eschatological war at the end of the fifth Sabbath song. In 4Q402 frg. 4.7, the phrase "war of elohim" occurs. Normally, this phrase would be interpreted to mean "the war of God," but in this case it should probably be translated as "the war of angels." This is because elohim occurs two lines later, and in that context should be translated as “angels,” since the verb connected to it is in the plural. If so, then what is being described in 4Q402 frg. 4.7 is God’s assembling of his angelic army for the eschatological war: "The angels will run to his [God’s] muster, and there is the sound of tumult" (4.9). There is a further reference to the role played by the angels in the eschatological war: "The elohim in the war of heaven" (4Q402 frg. 4.10). Presumably, what followed was a description of the war of heaven and the angelic victory.

According to the Book of Jubilees, God created Israel in order that the nation may be in community with God and his angels: "For all the angels of the presence and all the angels of sanctification have been so created from the day of their creation, and before the angels of the presence and the angels of sanctification he has sanctified Israel, that it should be with him and with his holy angels" (Jub. 15:27-28). Not surprisingly, angels and Israel observe the Sabbath together as a single community: "And he gave us a great sign, the Sabbath day, that we should work six days.... And all the angels of the presence, and all the angels of sanctification...he has commanded us to keep the Sabbath with him in heaven and on earth (Jub. 2:15-19). According to the War Scroll, it is Israel's privileged position in relation to the other nations that allows it to see the angels: "the holy people of the covenant...seers of the holy angels" (1QM 10.10-11). The sons of light as the army of God must keep themselves ritually clean precisely because angels form part of their army. For a man who has had a bodily discharge to remain in the camp would be offensive to the angels (1QM 7.6). In fact, the Essenes understood themselves as the true Israel to be in community with the angels in heaven; because of God's mercy they now share in the lot or destiny of the angels, which means that they, like the angels, are destined to receive some form of eternal life. There are are several expressions of this belief.

1QS 11.5-9	"He [God] has allowed them to inherit the lot of the holy ones. With the sons of heaven he has joined together their assembly to be a council of the community" (7b-8a).
1QH 11[3].21-24	"The corrupt spirit you have purified from the great sin in order that he may take his place with the army of the holy ones and can enter into communion with the congregation of the sons of heaven. You cast eternal destiny for man with the spirits of knowledge" (21b-22).
1QH 14[6].12b-13a	"For you have brought [your truth and your] glory to all the men of your council and in the lot together with the angels of the presence."
1QH 19[11].10b-13a	"For your glory you have purified man from sin...in order that he may partake of the lot of holy ones...in order that he may take his place in your presence with the eternal army and the spirits of [ ]."
4Q181 frg. 1, col. 1.1-6	"He [God] approaches some from among the sons of the world [ ] in order that they may be considered in the com[munity of the g]ods as a congregation of holiness in the position of eternal life and (sharing) in the lot of his holy ones" (3b-4).

The presence of angels in the community is the reason for the exclusion of all foreigners from the community, since they are considered ritually unclean, and even physically imperfect Jews (4Q174 1.3-5; 1QSa 2.8-9a; see 1QM 7.6).

According to the Book of Heavenly Lights (1 En 72-82) some angels are involved in the management of the heavenly luminaries, i.e., the sun, moon and stars. It seems that these angels operate under the direction and authority of Uriel (1 En 79.6; 74.2; 75.3; 82.3). (In 1 En 20:4, however, it is the angel Raguel who "tends the hosts of the luminaries .") It appears that all the stars have angelic guides (1 En 80:1), and angels serve to move stars across the sky (or so it was thought) (1 En 82.10-20). (It seems, however, that some of the angels stray and so the calendar is out of sequence with the seasons [1 En 80.2-8].) Different ranks exist among the angels responsible for the stars. There are four angelic leaders in charge of the four seasons, each a ninety-one day period: "Their four leaders who divide the four parts of the year" (1 En 82:11). There are also twelve angelic leaders corresponding to the twelve thirty-day months of the solar year. Finally, there are 360 angelic leaders, one for each day of the solar year, with the exception of the four epagomenal days added after the two soltices and two equinoxes. Under each of the angels belonging to the group of 360 are found thousands of angels (1 En 82.11).

Although unclear, in part because of lacunae, there is probably another account of how angels function to control the movement of the sun, moon and stars in the Thanksgiving Hymns: "[You entrusted] to the eternal spirits in their dominions the lights according to their mysteries, the stars according to their paths" (1QH 9[1].11b-12a). It seems that the angels also have responsibility for natural phenomena such as thunder and lightning (1QH 9[1].12). In fact, in 1 En 60:16-21, each natural phenomenon has a corresponding spirit (or angel) responsible for its timely and correct operation:

Likewise, in the Book of Jubilees, in addition to the angels of the presence and the angels of sanctification, there seems also to be a lesser rank of angels, to whom is given control of nature, so that they are named according to their function: "angels of the spirit of fire and the angels of the spirit of the winds, and the angels of the spirit of the clouds, and of darkness, and of snow and of hail and of frost, and the angels of the voices and of the thunder and of the lightning, and the angels of the spirits of cold and of heat, and of winter and of spring and of harvest and of summer and of all the spirits of his creatures which are in the heavens and on the earth" (Jub. 2:2-3).

As in the Old Testament, angels function as the agents of God: they are sent into the world of human beings for certain purposes as determined by God. In texts from the second-Temple period, there are several examples of the angels serving as divine agents. In 1 En 89.1, one of the four principal angels informs Noah of the coming flood, which will be God's punishment on the antediluvian world, and in 1 En 66:2 the angels in charge of water are given the responsibility for flooding the earth by releasing the water stored beneath the earth. It is even said that the angels build the ark for Noah (1 En 67:1-2). In 1 En 100:5, holy angels also function to protect righteous human beings who have died as a result of evil until the eschaton, when there will be a final judgment. In the Book of Jubilees, angels test human beings (19:3), report their sins to God (4:6), bind evil spirits (10:9-10) and assist those who are attacked by forces of evil (48:4, 13).

In 2 Maccabees, on several occasions angelic beings appear in order to protect the Temple or assist Judas Maccabees and his followers (see 3:24-40; 5:2-4; 10:29-30; 11:8). In the Book of Tobit, the angel Raphael serves incognito as a protector and guide of Tobias on his journeys. In addition, after he has revealed his true identity, Raphael explains that part of his function as one of the seven principal angels is to take the prayers of the righteous before "the glory of the Lord." He is also the angel who reported to God Tobit's righteous deeds of burying the dead at the risk of his own life (Tobit 12:12). In 3 Macc 6:16-21, God sends two angels in order to rescue Jews in the Ptolemaic Kingdom from being slaughtered in the hippodrome: "Then the most glorious, almighty, and true God revealed his holy face and opened the heavenly gates, from which two glorious angels of fearful aspect descended, visible to all but the Jews. They opposed the forces of the enemy and filled them with confusion and terror, binding them with immovable shackles." These angels cause the war elephants to turn on the king's own troops and trample them. In Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, in the expansion of the biblical story of Jair (Judg 10:3-6), the angel Nathaniel appears and supernaturally extinguishes the fire that is about to burn the seven men who have refused to sacrifice to Baal. They then cause a blindness to fall upon all but the seven so that they are able to escape (LAB 38). Likewise, David confesses in LAB 59:4 that no one has harmed him because God has delivered him to his angels and guardians in order to protect him. Finally, the seven chief angels in the Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice have the task of pronouncing a three-fold blessing; although it is not clear who the recipients of this blessing are, arguably it is righteous human beings (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.10-29). Similarly, in T. Naph. 8:4, angels are said to bless those who obey the Law.

In the Animal Apocalypse, there occurs the idea of seventy angelic "shepherds." God, “the lord of the sheep,” abandons Israel, the sheep, because of Israel’s apostasy. From that time until the eschaton, Israel is to be ruled sequentially by seventy shepherds, symbolizing seventy ruling angels, each of which is given instructions to destroy a certain number of the sheep as punishment (1 En 89:59-60). Probably, each angelic administration lasts seven years, so that between the exile and the eschaton there are a total of 490 years. Moreover, these 490 years are divided into four periods, which may correspond to the four ruling angels. The last of the four periods, consisting of eight-four years, represents the Seleucid period, terminates when some of the lambs begin "to open their eyes and see” (1 En 90:6). This event marks the end of Israel’s oppression under the “twelve shepherds” responsible for the nation’s excessive suffering during the Seleucid reign. At the beginning of the period of the angelic administration, God also appoints another angel with the assignment of recording whether the seventy shepherds do what as they are commanded or whether they exceed their mandate by destroying more of the sheep than they are permitted to destroy. This angel is not to take measures to stop them but simply record what they do.

In the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, an angel, called "this angel of peace"—said to be superior to all other angels— is appointed to intercede between God and Israel and protect Israel from Satan and his spirits (T. Dan 6:1-7). Similarly, Jacob is said to have been given a vision of a powerful angel that accompanied him wherever he went and protected him (T. Judah 3:10), and in T. Jos. 6:7, Abraham is said to have had an angel, presumably serving in the role of protector. What is true of Abraham and Jacob is probably true of their descendents. The figure known as the "angel of peace" also appears in T. Benj. 6:1 as a guide of the individual Jew, standing in opposition to Beliar. Along the same lines, the Qumran community, whose members viewed themselves as the remnant from Israel, believed that angels served to protect it against its enemies, presumably both human and spiritual: "But you, O God, you protect your fruit by means of the mystery of mighty heroes and spirits of holiness" (1QH 16[8].11-12). Angels will even fight with Israel in the eschatological war as the army of God (1QM 1.10-11; 12.1, 4-5, 6-8; 15.13-14). As already indicated, according to the War Scroll, Michael, who is also known as the prince of light, has been assigned the task of being Israel's protector and defender now and in the eschatological future (1QM 13.9-13; 17.6-8) (see 1 En 20.5).

It should also be noted that, according to LXX Deut 32:8 and Sir 17:17, angels are appointed to rule over the nations (but God alone is Israel's ruler). Each nation has its corresponding ruling angel.

Angels are conceived as having esoteric knowledge and sometimes as being assigned the task of revealing such knowledge to human beings. It is a distinctive of angels in Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice that they have knowledge that is inaccessible to human beings. This is why they are called variously "angels of knowledge" (ml'ky hd`th) (11QShirShabb 2-1-9.5); "elim of knowledge" ('lym d`th) (4Q400 frg. 2.1); "elohim who draw near to knowledge" ('lwhym [vacat] lprwby d`th) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.6); "holy ones who establish knowledge" (qdwshym mmysdy d[`th]) (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.24); "spirits of understanding" (rwchy byn) (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.37); and "spirits of knowledge and understanding" (rwchy d`th wbynh) (4Q405 frg. 17.3). Angels are said to make known hidden things (4Q401 frg. 14, col. 2.7), which implies naturally that they sometimes assume a revelatory role. Indeed, in 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.17 angels are said to teach God's commandments and in 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.17 they function as teachers of priestly halakah (teaching on the Law): "And from their mouths (come) the teachings concerning all matters of holiness together with [his glorious] commandments." Similarly, it is said of some angels that they cause "knowledge to shine among all the elim of light," which may imply a teaching function among the angels themselves (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.35).

According to the Book of Jubilees, angels teach skills to human beings (Jub. 3:15; Jub. 12:26-27), reveal God’s will to them (Jub. 12:22), announce future events (Jub. 16:1-4, 16), and even reveal cosmic secrets (Jub. 4:21). Similarly, the author of this rewriting of the biblical narrative inserts into the biblical account a description of how an angel showed Jacob seven tablets on which was written Israel's future history: "And he saw in a vision of the night, and behold an angel descended from heaven with seven tablets in his hands, and he gave them to Jacob, and he read them and knew all that was written therein which would befall him and his sons throughout all the ages" (Jub. 32:20-21). It should also be noted that the content of the Book of Jubilees itself purports to be a revelation from an angel of the presence to Moses. The angel addresses Moses in the second person singular (Jub. 2:26, 29; 4:26; 6:11-32 etc.) and usually speaks of himself in the first person plural, as a representative of the angelic realm (most commonly in Jub. 2-19; but see also Jub. 30:20; 41:24; 48:10, 11, 16, 19), but sometimes also in the first person singular (Jub. 6:19, 22, 35; 12:22, 26; 16:5; 18:9-11; 30:21; 48:4, 13; 50:13).

According to second-Temple Enochic texts, when Enoch is taken up to heaven, angels reveal many things to the antediluvian patriarch. In the Similitudes of Enoch, reference is made to "the angel of peace" who is said to reveal to Enoch all secrets (1 En 40:1-7; see 1 En 52:5; 53:4; 54:4; 56:2; 60:24) (see also T. Dan 6.5; T. Asher 6.5; T. Benj. 6.1). More specifically, in the Book of Heavenly Lights (1 En 72-82) the angel Uriel functions as a teacher of the true calendar; he explains to Enoch that human beings should mark the passage of time by means of the movement of the sun and not the moon (1 En 72.1; 74.2; 75.3, 4; 78.10; 79.2, 6; 80.1; 82.7). In addition, one must intercalate four extra days into the calendar after each quarter; the proper calendar consists of twelve months of thirty days plus four extra days. Presumably, such knowledge is not naturally known among human beings, which explains why they use the moon to mark the passage of time. Enoch is also given a comprehensive vision of the course human history by angels. In the Book of Watchers, Enoch says, "From the words of the watchers and holy ones I saw heard everything.... Not for this generation do I expound but concerning one that is distant I speak (1 En 1:2) (Enoch also says that he had a vision of the "the holy one in heaven"; see 1 En 14-15). In the Letter of Enoch, Enoch again claims to have a heavenly vision and to have learned "everything" from the words of the watchers and holy ones; he also makes references to heavenly tablets that he has read (1 En 93:1-2). It is clear from what follows that "everything" includes the course of human history centering on Israel. Another reference to heavenly tablets occurs in the Book of Heavenly Lights. The angel Uriel gives to Enoch "the book of the heavenly tablets": "And he said to me: 'Observe, Enoch, these heavenly tablets, and read what is written on them, and mark every individual fact.' And I observed the heavenly tablets, and read everything which was written on them and understood everything, and read the book of all the deeds of mankind, and of all the children of flesh that shall be upon the earth to the remotest generations" (1 En 81:1-2). From the larger context, it seems that Enoch receives knowledge of God's requirements for human beings and of the future course of human history, which will culminate in final judgment.

In the Book of Watchers, Enoch is actually taken on a tour by angels to places in the cosmos normally inaccesible to human beings and is shown many of the inner workings of creation, such as the storehouse of the four winds (1 En 18:1-5; 34:1-35:1) and the chambers where dead are kept (1 En 22.1-13). It seems that Uriel is the angel who initially accompanies Enoch (1 En 19.1; 21.5, 9-10), but then Raphael assumes the role of cosmic guide (1 En 22.3). Raguel explains to Enoch the phenomenon of the fire in the west (1 En 23.4), and Michael explains to Enoch the significance of the fragrant tree that he sees (1 En 24.6-25.6). Finally, Uriel resumes his role as guide in 1 En 33:3 (see 1 En 21.5, 9; 22.3, 6; 23.4; 24.6; 27.2; 32.6; 33.3 for references to more than one angel accompanying Enoch on his cosmic journeys.) Likewise, in the Dream Visions (1 En 83-90), three angels take Enoch to observe the incarceration of fallen watchers (1 En 87:1-3) and then place Enoch in the midst of the sheep, which are symbolic of Israel (1 En 90.31).

In Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, angels sometimes reveal information to human beings that would be otherwise unknowable to them at that time. In T. Iss. 2:1, an angel appears to Jacob and announces to him that Rachel shall give birth to two children and in T. Jos. 6:6, Joseph explains that God revealed through an angel the plan of the wife of Potiphar to seduce him by means of enchantments mixed with his food. Similarly, before it was given to Moses, an angel is said to have shown Levi the "Law of the Lord" (T. Levi 9:6). Likewise, in Joseph and Aseneth, the angel who appears to Aseneth reveals to her that she has been accepted by God (Jos. As. 14-15). Finally, in the Book of Tobit, Raphael provides Tobias with otherwise hidden knowledge on how to render the demon Asmodeus harmless and then exorcize it. (He burns the liver and heart of a fish that he had caught earlier on a smoking incense. The resultant odor repels the demon, who flees the scene [6:17; 8:3].)

In some cases, angels share their privileged knowledge with human beings contrary to the will of God, as in the case of the watchers in the Book of Watchers. The watchers teach human beings to do various sorts of evil practices, revealing to them mysteries that are to be concealed in heaven. This hidden knowledge that they reveal consists of occult practices, how to makes implements of war and how women could beautify themselves in order to promote sexual immorality (1 En 7:1; 8:1-3; 9:6, 8). Likewise, in the Book of Jubilees, the watchers impart to human beings forbidden knowledge, such as astrology (4:15; 8:3–4).

In some second-Temple texts, angels will be involved in the meting out eschatological judgment. In 1 En 1:9, holy ones, or angels, will accompany God when he appears to judge the world: "Behold, he [God] comes with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment upon them, and destroy the wicked, and reprove all flesh for everything which the sinful and ungodly have done, and committed against him." Similarly, according to 1 En 99:3; 100:4; 102:3, angels play a part in the execution of final judgment. According to the Apocalypse of Weeks, at the time of final judgment, the seven archangels will bring the watchers before God to be judged, who will then be thrown into the fiery abyss (1 En 90:20–21; see also 88.1-3). The watchers will be thrown into the fiery abyss, as will the seventy angelic shepherds (1 En 90:24). Finally all the blinded sheep, which represent apostate Jews mentioned in 1 En 90:7, are judged and thrown into another fiery abyss, located nearby on the south side of the Temple or, in other words, Gehenna (1 En 90:26-27) (see 1 En 26-27).

Angels have a role to play in the execution of eschatological judgment according to Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice. In addition to having priestly duties, angels are to bring judgment on the wicked. In 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.15–16a, it is said, “[Statutes of holi]ness he inscribed for them. By these all the eternally holy ones purify themselves. And he purifies the pure ones of [ ] all whose ways are perverted.” God gives statutes to the angelic priests by which they may purify themselves. Obedience to these statutes renders them purified and fit for God’s service. This much is clear. Unfortunately, an untimely lacuna renders it unclear what exactly the angels, having been sanctified, are now fit to do in God’s service. Nevertheless, it is probable that the text should be reconstructed as follows: "And he purifies the pure ones [of light to requite] all whose ways are perverted” (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.15b–16a). This means that the angelic priests are assigned the task of punishing sinners in accordance with God’s judgment. Whether this is to be carried out eschatologically is not stated, but is probable.

In the Qumran sectarian writings, angels will be instrumental in bringing eschatological judgment upon wicked human beings. The author of CD 2.5b–7a says that God will bring destruction upon the disobedient by means of “angels of destruction” (ml'ky chbl). They are assigned the task of bringing judgment upon those who depart from the “way,” which means obedience to the Law according to its correct interpretation (see 1QS 10.21). Similarly, in Two-Ways Teaching in the Rule of the Community, the “visitation” will be carried out by the same “angels of destruction” (1QS 4.12–13).

In 11QMelchizedek, at the time of the end, it is the angel Melchizedek who “will execute the judgments of God on Belial and the spirits of his lot (2.12–13). The phrase “will execute judgments of God ” is an allusion to Isa 61:2: “the day of vengeance of our God." In this context, Ps 82:1–2 is interpreted eschatologically of Melchizedek’s judgment of the fallen angels: the elohim (“god”) who takes his stand in the assembly of el ("God") is the heavenly being Melchizedek; he will judge in the midst of the other elohim (“gods”) (11QMelch 2.9–14). These other “gods” or angels will assist Melchizedek in the execution of judgment on Belial and the spirits of his lot: “He will raise up the holy ones of God (el) for deeds of judgment (11QMelch 2.9). The fact that in 11QMelch 2.11 it is said that el ("God") will judge the peoples, citing Ps 7:8, indicates that the angel Melchizedek is the instrument of God’s eschatological judgment. The statement “Your elohim reigns” in Isa 52:7 is interpreted to be the reign of Melchizedek. Likewise, Ps 82:2 “How long will you judge unjustly and show partiality to the wicked” is interpreted as follows: “Its interpretation concerns Belial and the spirits of his lot, who rebelled by turning away from the precepts of God” (11QMelch 2.12). In other words, Ps 82:2 is believed to speak of the unjust reign of Belial and the spirits of his lot, which will come to an end with the appearance of the angel Melchizedek as eschatological judge. This interpretation is suggested by the fact that Ps 82:1 says that God presides over the assembly of God and judges among the elohim: these “gods” are interpreted as angels rather than as human judges. In 11QMelch 2.13, it is affirmed that Melchizedek will become judge on that day and will remove the right to judge (or to rule) from Belial and the spirits of his lot. It is probably safe to say that Melchizedek will execute final judgment not only on Belial and the spirits of his lot, but also on disobedient human beings.

In the Book of Jubilees, there are heavenly tablets or books that serve to make a record of the good and evil deeds of human beings. It seems that the angels report to God all the sins that have been committed on earth, which, presumably, are then recorded. The angel of the presence explains to Moses, “Therefore when we come before the Lord our God we will make known all the sins which occur in heaven and earth which are in the light or in the darkness or in any (place)” (Jub. 4:6). In another place, the angel says, “And they will write it down as sin in heaven concerning the man who acts thus” (Jub. 28:6). The record of the sins of a person is used as the basis of the meting out of judgment both in history and eschatologically. It is said of Joseph that being cognizant of this fact kept him from succumbing to the advances of Potiphar’s wife: “And the sin is written (on high) concerning him in the eternal books always before the Lord. And Joseph remembered these words and did not want to lie with her” (Jub. 39:6). The names or the deeds of the righteous are also recorded. Because he was found to be faithful, Abraham was recorded as a friend (of God) in the heavenly tablets (Jub. 19:9). The massacre of the Shechemites by Levi and Simeon, avenging the defilement and shame of their sister Dinah is recorded in the heavenly tablets to their credit: “It was a righteousness for them, and it was written down for them as righteousness” (Jub. 30:17b). (This evaluation of these two brothers is contrary to the biblical account [Gen 34; 49:5–7].) As a reward for his action, Levi is given an eternal priesthood, and it is said, “A blessing and righteousness will be written (on high) as a testimony for him in the heavenly tablets before the God of all” (Jub. 30:20; see 30:23). Following this account, the general warning is given to the children of Israel that, if they obey God’s commandments, they will be written down in the heavenly tablets as friends; but, if they disobey, they will be recorded as enemies: “And they will be blotted out of the book of life and written in the book of those who will be destroyed and with those who will be rooted out of the land” (Jub. 30:22b).

In the Animal Apocalypse, the basis of final judgment is said to be “sealed books,” which are opened before God, the lord of the sheep, on the day of judgment (1 En 90:20). These include the records of the administrations of the seventy shepherds recorded by the angelic scribe (1 En 89:62–64, 68–71, 76–77; 90:14–70) as well as, it seems, records of the deeds of the watchers and the blinded sheep, i.e., disobedient Israelites. Similarly, in the Epistle of Enoch, the antediluvian patriarch warns the wicked that all of their evil deeds are being recorded in heaven until the day of final judgment (1 En 98:6–8; 104:7). These will be read out to God at the time of judgment (1 En 97:6). Probably, it is angels who are responsible for keeping such records. Records are also kept on the righteous. But unlike the wicked, these will serve to commend them to God at the final judgment, resulting in eternal blessing (1 En 103:2–3). There also occurs the idea of a register of the righteous, in which their names are written down before God, “the glory of the Great One” (1 En 104:1).

In several second-Temple texts, it is asserted that there are angelic priests who perform priestly functions in a heavenly Temple. (For references in the Old Testament to God's dwelling in a heavenly Temple sometimes depicted as sitting on a throne in that Temple, see 2 Sam 22:7; Ps 18:6; 29:9; Micah 1:2; Hab 2:20. In Isa 6:1-2, God is depicted as sitting on a throne in his heavenly Temple.) This is no clearer than in Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. The thirteen Sabbath that make up this composition songs invoke angelic praise, describe the angelic priesthood and the heavenly Temple as well as provide a glimpse into the Sabbath liturgy of the angelic realm. That there are priestly angels is clear from various designations for angels: "priests of the lofty heavens" (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.20); "chief priests" (4Q401 frg. 13.3); "priest in the council of God" (4Q401 frg. 11.3 ); "chief [ ] from the priest of the inner sanctum" (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.24); "priests of the inner sanctum" (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.8, 17, 19; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.19) (Probably the term "priests of the inner sanctum" is in apposition to "holy of holy ones" in 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.19.)

Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice depicts heaven, where the angels dwell, as a Temple where they worship God, corresponding to the worship of God in the Jerusalem Temple. Not surprisingly, heaven is referred to as "temple" (hykl) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.13); debir (sanctuary) (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.13); "tabernacle" (mškn) (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.10); sanctuary (mqdš) (4Q405 frg. 23, col. 2.11); "holy place" (qwdš) (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.14). In fact, it seems that heaven is divided into seven holy areas (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 2.10; 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.11, 21, 27) and these seem to correspond to the seven debirim (or sanctuaries) of the heavenly temple, assuming that 4Q405 frg. 7, col. 7 should be reconstructed as "seven debirim of the priesthoods." This would explain the fact that Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice seems to know more than one divine chariot-throne (4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.14-15; 4Q405 frg. 20, col. 2-frg. 21). (The divine chariot-throne, which bears the glory of God, is described in the twelfth song [4Q405 20-21-22, col. 2.7-14].) If there are seven debirim then it makes sense to have seven corresponding chariot-thrones.

Based on 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 2.22, it is probable that there are seven divisions of angelic priests: "seven priest[hoods] in the wondrous sanctuary for the seven holy councils." It is also probable that the seven chief angelic princes (see 4Q403 frg. 1, col. 1.1-29 and 4Q405 frg. 13.4-7) are to be identified with seven angelic high priests. It would stand to reason that seven debirim require seven high priests. This conclusion is further suggested by the use of the plural "ephods" in 4Q405 frg. 23, col. 2.5 and "breastplates" in 11QShirShabb frgs. 8-7, col..4. These are the articles worn by a high priest, so that apparently there is more than one angelic high priest. The existence of deputy high priests serving alongside the high priest is attested in 2 Kgs 23:4 and 1QM 2.1; for this reason it is possible that the seven deputy angelic princes (nshy'y mshnh) mentioned in conjunction with the seven chief angelic princes (nshy'y rwsh) function as deputy angelic high priests. Further evidence that the seven chief angelic princes and deputy angelic princes are also angelic priests is the fact that in the sixth and eighth Sabbath songs they are responsible to give blessings in the name of God.

The angelic priests in Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice function to atone for sins or propitiate God on behalf of human beings. These angelic priests serve at the heavenly sanctuary. (They maintain the purity of the heavenly sanctuary by means of their obedience [4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.4, 14-15].) In particular, they are said to bring about the possibility of the removal of guilt through their priestly service in the heavenly Temple for those who repent of sin. The text in which this idea appears, however, offers some translation difficulties (4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.15b–16b). It could be translated as “They atone for all those who repent of sin, resulting in God’s favor to them” or “They propitiate God’s good will for the benefit of those who repent of sin.” In either case, however, it is clear that a role of the angelic priests is to bring about atonement by means of the heavenly cult for those who repent.

The heavenly Temple and its priesthood is probably the context in which the phrase in 4Q400 frg. 1, col. 1.18 should be understood: “[..] His lovingkindness for an eternal compassionate forgiveness.” The lamed-clause may express the result of the preceding clause, which, unfortunately, has too many lacunae to be able to recover its meaning. Probably, the “eternal compassionate forgiveness” results from some cultic function of the angelic priesthood (see parallels in Dan 9:9; 1QH 14.9; 4Q286 frag. 1, col. 2.8). The means by which the angelic priests provide atonement or propitiation for the sins of the repentant seems to be heavenly sacrifices. In what is probably the thirteenth Sabbath Song, there are references to the “sacrifices of the holy one” (11QShirShabb frag. 8–7.2), as well as “the odor of their offerings” (frg. 8–7.2) and “the odor of their drink offerings” (frg. 8–7.3). The angelic priests are responsible for sacritifical service in heaven. In other words, whatever human priests do in the earthly Temple has its counterpart in heaven, performed by angelic priests for the benefit of those who repent.

Along the same lines, in Testament of Levi, God, described as the "great glory," is said to dwell in the "holy of holies," the seventh heaven, implying that this highest heaven is being conceived as part of a Temple (T. Levi 3:4). It is then said that with God in the seventh heaven are the angels of the presence of the Lord, who “serve and offer propitiation to the Lord for all the (unknowing) sins of the righteous.” To this end, these angels are said to offer “rational and bloodless sacrifices” (logikên kai anaimakton prosphoran).

The idea of an angelic priesthood also occurs in passing in the Book of Jubilees. Jacob blesses his son Levi as follows: "And may the Lord give to you and to your seed greatness and great glory, and cause you and your seed, from among all flesh, to approach him to serve in his sanctuary as the angels of the presence and as the holy ones" (Jub. 31:13-14). Like Levi and his priestly descendents, angels serve before God as priests, but in a heavenly sanctuary. Finally, in 1 En 14:15, part of Enoch's vision, God is depicted as occupying a throne in what is called a second house situated beyond a first house where angels along with Enoch are located. Enoch says, "And I beheld a vision, And lo! there was a second house, greater than the former, and the entire portal stood open before me, and it was built of flames of fire. And in every respect it so excelled in splendour and magnificence and extent that I cannot describe to you its splendour and its extent (1 En 14:15-17). What is being depicted in this vision is the holy place and holy of holies in heaven. God dwells in the holy of holies, the second house in Enoch's vision, and priestly angels enter and serve in the holy place.

It should also be noted that, according to Melchizedek, at the completion of the ninth jubilee, in the first week of the tenth jubilee, on the Day of Atonement, atonement will be made for “all the sons of light and the men of the lot of Melchizedek” (11QMelch 2.8; see 2.6). This eschatological atonement may somehow be connected with Melchizedek’s appearance. Perhaps he as the angelic High Priest serves to provide atonement for the righteous.