Pauline Soteriology

In Pauline theology, the death and resurrection of Christ have a cosmic effects, transcending the sphere of the individual. Adopting the Jewish eschatological teaching of the two ages, Paul affirms that Christ's death and resurrection and then his installment as Lord has inaugurated the eschatological age, the time of final salvation. An important implication of this is that the believer, the beneficiary of this eschatological salvation, is no longer under the control of Satan and his subordinate spirits, who rule "this age." Christ's installment as Lord means that no longer do Satan and his subordinate spirits have authority of all human beings. Rather, believers are freed from the influence of these hostile beings, who formerly led them into sin and generally oppressed them. To be believe in Christ is to exist already in the sphere of eschatological salvation, having been removed from the realm of Satan, and therefore to share in Christ's victory over all hostile spiritual powers.

In many second-Temple Jewish texts, the existence of disobedient spiritual beings is assumed. There are two distinctive formulations of this belief. First, in dependence of Gen 6:1-4, there arose the story of the Watchers, angels in the antediluvian period, who corrupted themselves. Their disembodied offspring then continue the corrupting influence on the human race begun by their fathers. Second, many texts speak of the existence in the postdiluvian period of evil spirits subordinate to a ruling spirit, variously named Satan, Belial (or Beliar), Mastema or the devil (diabolos).

In agreement with the Book of Daniel, angels are called "watchers" in texts from the second-Temple period. In the accounts from the second-Temple period, the term watchers is no longer simply a synonym for angel, as it is in the Book of Daniel. In an elaboration on the biblical account of the birth of Noah in Genesis Apocryphon, Lamech, Noah's father, wonders whether his son Noah could be the offspring of the Watchers because of his remarkable appearance (1QapGen 2:1, 16). In close association with the Aramaic term "watchers" ('irin) is "sons of heaven" (bene shmin) (2.5, 16; 5.4), "holy ones" (2:1, 20) and nephalin. But the exact relationship between these four terms is not clear from the context. Nevertheless, the term "watchers," unlike in the Book of Daniel, seems to denote angels who have rebelled against God by becoming involved sexually with human women. Other references to watchers as disobedient angels include CD 2.18; Jub. 4:15; T. Reub. 5.6-7; T. Naph. 3.5; Book of Watchers (see 1 En 12.2-3; (watchers...holy ones); 20.1 holy ones who watch; 39:12-13; 40:2; 61:12). (According to Jub. 4:15, however, the orignal function of watchers was to help human beings.) In the Greek translation of the Book of Watchers, the term watchers (egrêgoroi) is used exclusively of the rebellious angels (1:5; 10:7, 9, 15; 16:2). They are also called "the watchers, the sons of heaven" (6:2; 14:3), "the watchers of heaven" (12:4; 13:10; 15:2) and even the "holy watchers" (15:9).

1 Enoch 6 relates the story of how the two hundred angels called "Watchers," angels appointed to "watch" over human affairs in antediluvian times, descended from heaven and had sexually relations with human women, thereby corrupting themselves (Gen 6:1-4). The result of these unions was the birth of the giants, who did violence on the earth. These two hundred angels are under one leader, Shemhazah, and immediately under him are twenty ruling angels, with ten angels under each of them (20 x 10 = 200).

After each of these twenty ruling angels is named, it is said about them, "These are leaders and leaders of their ten." (In the Greek translation of 1 Enoch, the term "leaders" is translated as archai.) Similarly, 1 Enoch 69, part of the Similitudes of Enoch, perhaps dating from the Christian period, asserts that the fallen angels exist in a hierarchical structure: rulers of one hundred, rulers of fifty and rulers of ten, who seem to be the Watchers (69:3) (If so, then the Watchers do not occupy the highest angelic ranks). The text provides the names and evil deeds of five of the higher ranking fallen angels: Yeqon, 'Asbe'el, Gadre'el, Penemu'e, Kasdeya'. (1 En 69:1-2 seems to be an interpolation from 1 Enoch 6.) (For other references to the Watchers and their activities, see 1 En 7, 8, 80.6-8.) The story of the Watchers also occurs in other second-Temple texts. The same account of the fall of the Watchers in 1 Enoch 6 occurs in 2 Enoch 18.4-6. Reference to the sins of the Watchers and their eventual judgment is found in the Book of Jubilees (4.22; 8.3-4; 5.1-11)

Similarly, in the Damascus Document is found an exhortation to heed the negative examples of biblical figures, including the Watchers, who rebelled against God and were thereby punished (CD 2.14-3.12a). The diagnosis of their problem was that they walked "after the stubbornness of their heart" (CD 2.17-18). Although the text is very fragmentary, in 4Q180-181 (The Ages of Creation), mention is made to "Azazel and the angels" followed by the sentence "bore to them mighty ones" (4Q180 frg 1. 7-8 = 4Q181 frg 2. 2). Probably, what is described is the Watchers' copulation with human women, who then gave birth to the giants. In T. Reub. 5:6, the patriarch blames the antediluvian women for seducing the Watchers, the result of which was the birth of the giants; the Watchers were supposed to have transformed their appearance to look like human men. The tradition of the Watchers is also alluded to in T. Naph. 3.5: "Likewise the Watchers departed from the order of nature; the Lord cursed them at the Flood." There is a reference to the story of the Watchers in 2 Bar 56.12-13, which dates from the first century: "And some of them came down and mingled themselves with women. At that time they who acted like this were tormented in chains."

In 1 Enoch and the Book of Jubilees, there is distinguished another type of disobedient spiritual being, which plagues humanity in the postdiluvian period. This is the disembodied offspring of the Watchers and their human consorts. With the Flood, God destroys not only all human beings, but also the children of the Watchers, the giants. At this time, God imprisons the Watchers until the time of final judgment (see 1 Enoch 10; 21.7-10; Jub. 5:6-11; 2 Bar 56.13). The disembodied spirits of the giants, however, become "evil spirits" (pneumata ponera) or "powerful spirits" (pneumata ischura) dwelling on the earth (1 En 15.8-16.4). In order to spare humanity, nine tenths of these were imprisoned, but a tenth remain on earth subject to Mastema (Jub. 10.1-14). Whether Mastema is one of these spirits is not clear. (Moses, however, is provided with information on how to counter the negative effects of these malicious spirits: "And we explained to Noah all the medicines of their diseases, together with their seductions, how he might heal them with herbs of the earth" [Jub. 10:12-13].)

According to 1 Enoch and the Book of Jubilees, the Watchers morally corrupted human beings by teaching them to do evil, sorcery astrology, weapon making and even the use of cosmetics (1 En 7-8, 69; 10; 21.7-10; 64-65; 69; Jub. 5:16-11; 8:3). According to 1 Enoch 19, after the flood, the bodies of the angels are imprisoned, whereas their spirits are free to roam the earth until the final judgment. These spirits lead human beings astray; in particular, they entice them to offer sacrifices to demons (daimonia) as unto gods. Whether the term "demons" refer to these spirits or perhaps to the disembodied offspring of the Watchers is not clear.

The idea that there are evil spirits who are under the authority of a single spirit is common in second-Temple Judaism. These beings seeks to thwart the realization of the will of God in creation and therefore strive to corrupt human beings by leading them into disobedience to God's Law. (See also Justin Martyr [1 Apol. 54, 58, 62, 64; 2 Apol. 5, 7].)

In Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Beliar is the archenemy of God and the righteous (passim); Beliar is also known as Satan (satanas) (T. Dan 3:6; 5:6; 6:1; T. Gad 4.7; T. Asher 6:4 in a text) and the devil (ho diabolos) (T. Naph. 3:1; 8:4, 6; T. Asher 3:2) (see "the [airy] spirit of Beliar" [to (aeriôn pneuma tou Beliar] in T. Jos. 7:4; T. Benj. 3:4).

Beliar controls numerous other spirits called variously "spirits of deceit" (pneumata tês planes) (T. Reub. 1:2; 3:2; T. Sim. 6:6; T. Levi 3:3; T. Issa. 4:4; T. Zebu. 9:7, 8; T. Dan 5:5; T. Naph. 3:3 [pneumata planês]; T. Asher 6:2) (see also "the deceitful spirit, Beliar" [planês pneuma Beliar] in T. Benj. 6:1), evil spirits (T. Sim. 3:5; 4:9; 6:6; T. Levi 18:12; T. Judah 16:1; T. Asher 1:9; 6:5), demons of deceit (daimônes planês) (T. Judah 23:1), and unclean spirits [ta akatharta pneumata] (T. Benj. 5:2). The fact that these spirits are sometimes called "spirits of Beliar" (pneumata tou Beliar) implies that they are subservient to the Beliar: they are Beliar's spirits (genitive of possession) (T. Dan 1:7; T. Benj. 3:3; see also "spirit of Beliar" [T. Issa. 4:4; 7:7); this also explains why Beliar is also called archôn (prince) of deceit (archôn tês planês) (T. Sim. 2:7; T. Judah 19:4). The patriarch Dan understandably advises his children, "Be on guard against Satan and his spirits" (T. Dan 6:1).

Beliar and his spirits under his control aim to lead human beings into sin. The patriarch Dan explains that the spirits of deceit are at work in human beings to produce sin (T. Dan 5:5; see 1:7). These spirits specialize in certain sins, so that a spirit is identified with the sin that it attempts to produce in a person. In T. Reub. 3:2-7, eight "spirits of deceit" are identified: promiscuity (see also T. Levi 9:9; T. Judah 14:2), insatiability, strife, flattery and trickery, arrogance, lying, injustice. Similarly, Judah tells his children that there are four evil spirits: desire, heated passion, debauchery and sordid greed (T. Judah 16:1). Other spirits include "the spirit of jealousy and pretentiousness" (T. Dan 1:6); "the spirit of falsehood and/or anger" T. Dan 1:9; 2:1, 4), "the spirit of envy" (T. Simeon 4:7); "the spirit of "enviousness and promiscuity" (T. Judah 13:3); "the spirit of error" (T. Judah 14:8); and "the spirit of hatred" (T. Gad 1:9; 3:1; 4:7; 6:3). These spirits almost become human dispositions or attitudes, so closely associated are they with specific sins. At death, the soul is tormented by the evil spirit that it served while embodied (T. Asher 6:5).

In postdiluvian history as recounted by the Book of Jubilees, occasional reference is made to Prince Mastema.

He is depicted as a spiritual being who challenges God to command Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac in order to test Abraham's faithfulness, which differs from the biblical account (Jub. 17:16; 18.9, 12). Mastema is also the one who brought death to the firstborn of Egypt. He accuses Israel before God (48:15), and it is explained that Mastema tried to thwart Moses in his task of leading the Israelites out of Egypt (48:2, 9) and it is explained the power of the Egyptian magicians derived from him (Jub. 48:9). He even sent crows and other birds to eat the seed sown in the earth in order to deprive human beings of food (11:11). In addition, in reply to Noah's request to remove all the spirits of the disembodied giants from the earth, Mastema protests and asks God to exempt one tenth of them, so that they could continue their pernicious activities under his authority: "If some of them are not left for me, I will not be able to exercise the authority of my will among the children of men because they are intended to corrupt and lead astray before my judgment because the evil of the sons of men is great" (10:8). Thus, Mastema leads a spiritual assault against human beings.

And they began making graven images and polluted likenesses. And cruel spirits assisted them and led them astray so that they might commit sin and pollution. And the prince Mastema, acted forcefully to do all this. And he sent other spirits to those who were set under his hand to practice all error and sin and all transgression, to destroy, to cause to perish and to pour out blood upon the earth (Jub. 11.4-5).

(See Deut 32:17; Ps 96:5; 106:37; Paul likewise identifies pagan gods with demons [1 Cor 10:20-21].) It seems also that these spirits cause illness in human beings (Jub. 10.12-13), and it is said that God has ordained that spirits should rule over all the nations and thereby lead them astray; only Israel is potentially exempt, for God rules over it (15:31). Moses asks God on behalf of the Israelites: "And do not let the spirit of Beliar (i.e., Mastema) rule over them to accuse them before you and to ensnare them from every path of righteousness so that they might be destroyed before your face" (1:20; see 1.8-11). Beliar not only accuses the Israelites, but is also active in leading them away from obedience to the Torah. Later, Abraham, recognizing the spiritual peril that evil spirits pose, prays: "Save me from the hands of evil spirits which rule over the thought of the heart of man, and do not let them lead me astray from following you, O my God" (12:20). Similarly, when blessing Jacob, Abraham says, "May the spirit of Mastema not rule over you and your seed in order to remove you from following the Lord who is your God forever" (19.28). It seems that Mastema (or Beliar) rules over human beings insofar as evil spirits have their way with them.

According to Visions of Amram, human beings choose to live under the control of one of two angels. In this text, Amram has a vision of the two opposing angels who have been given control over all the sons of Adam (4Q544 frg. 1, col. 2.10–14 [Visions of Amram-b] = 4Q547 frgs. 1–2, col. 3.9–13). They are striving with each other for control over Amram: “And be-hold they were contesting for me” (col. 2.10). The evil angel is described as being “like an asp,” wearing “colored” clothing and being “obscured by darkness” (col. 2.13). Amram asks the good angel (identified as having three names that are unfortunately not part of the extant fragment) about “this Watcher," i.e., the evil angel (4Q544 frg. 2, col. 3.12). The good angel identifies his opponent as King of Evil along with other names that are now lost (4Q544 frg. 2). It is probable that both angels are each given three names. The three names of the evil ruling angel are probably Belial, Prince of Darkness and King of Evil, whereas the three names of the good ruling angel are probably Michael, Prince of Light and King of Righteousness. The good angel is said to have authority “over all the light” (col. 3.16), whereas the evil angel has authority “over all the darkness” (col. 3.16). Amram is asked which of these angels he wants to rule him. The implication is that he must make a fundamental choice about whether he wants to be ruled by the good or the evil angel.

In the Qumran sectarian writings, Belial is the archenemy of God and the Qumran community, who see themselves alone as belonging to the covenant; Belial is identical to the angel of darkness (1QS 3.13-4.26) and Melchiresa (4Q544 frg. 2). Belial leads all the disobedient angels and human beings in an organization resistance to the realization of the will of God in creation. Reference is made to Belial and "the spirits of his lot," by which is meant those angels who are subordinate to him (1QS 3.24; 1QM 13.2, 4, 11; 11QMelch 2.12; 4QBer-a [4Q286] frg. 7. col. 2.3); these spirits are also called "all his guilty lot" (4QBera (286) frg. 7. col. 2.2), spirits of Belial (4QCat-a col. 3. 10) and "destroying angels," insofar as they carry out the hostile intentions of Belial (1QM 13.12). Human beings who oppose God ipso facto are aligned with Belial, which explains why those outside of the Qumran community are called the "men of the lot of Belial" (1QS 2.4-5; 1QM 4.2; 4QCata col. 4. 16) or "men of Belial" (4QCat-a col. 2. 4). The army made up of gentiles and disobedient Jews that fights against the sons of light in the final eschatological war is called "the army of Belial" (1QM 1.1, 13) and "the troops of Belial"; the implication is that Belial is the leader of forces arrayed against God and the sons of light. (One should not think, however, that Belial is the ontological equal of God, an eternal, evil counterpart, for the author prays, "You made Belial to corrupt, a hostile angel" (1QM 13.10-11). Why God would do this is not explained.)

Belial opposes God, not incidentally, but intentionally; everything he does is determined by the goal of thwarting the realization of the will of God: "His counsel is towards wickedness and guiltiness" (1QM 13.11). Thus, the community curses Belial for his "hostile intentions" and the spirits of his lot for their "evil intentions" (1QM 13.4-5; 4QBer-a (286) frg. 7. col. 2.2-3). The Qumran community believed that Belial and the spirits of his lot controlled human history and will do so until the time appointed by God; this rule of Belial is called the "dominion of Belial" (1QS 1.18; 2.19; 1QM 14.9; 4QCat-a col. 3.8), equivalent to the "the dominion of wickedness" (1QM 17.5-6; 4Q510 frg. 1. 6; 4Q511 frg. 10. 5). To thwart God's purposes with Israel has been a special concern for Belial (see CD 4.12-6.1). The author of the Halakic Letter attributes the adoption of wrong halakot to the influence of the evil counsel of Belial (MMT C 1.28b-29); this leads to Israel's coming under the curses of the covenant. The same hostility is, as expected, directed towards the community, the true remnant of Israel. It is said that the Angel of Darkness (i.e. Belial) even leads the sons of righteousness astray: "And all their sins, their iniquities, their guilt and their acts of rebellion are because of his dominion" (1QS 3.22). The time until the removal of Belial will be the "periods of the humiliation of the sons of light" (4Q510 frg. 1. 7).

Belial can also influence the moral center of a human being, so that they plan evil (see 1QH-a 2[10].16, 22; 4[12].12-13; 4[12].12; 6[14].21-22; 7[15].3; 10[2].16-17; 14[6].21). According to 1QS 3.13-4.26, God has established two "spirits" in which a person can walk until the time of His visitation, which are identified as the spirits of truth and of deceit (3.18-19). The two spirits should be interpreted as two opposing human dispositions or propensities: the spirit of truth is the capacity for obedience to God while the spirit of deceit is the capacity for evil. But, somehow identified with the spirit of truth is the Prince of Lights (3.20) or Angel of Truth (3.24), while the Angel of Darkness (3.21) is identified with the spirit of deceit. The exact relationship between these spiritual beings and their corresponding human dispositions or propensities is not clear. What is clear, nonetheless, is that, in which spirit a person walks, depends on which of these two beings holds sway over him (see also 4QCata col. 4. 11-13). Similarly, in Testament of Amran, it seems that Amram has a vision of the two opposing angels who have been given control over all the sons of Adam (4Q544 frg. 1.10-14). He is asked which of these angels he wants to rule him. The implication is that he must make a fundamental choice about whether he is wishes to be ruled by the good or the evil angel; the same is probably true of all human beings.

In second-Temple Judaism, in continuity with the eschatological predictions of the Hebrew prophets, there were distinguished two periods of human history. It is asserted that the present period of history, under the control of Satan (or a synonymous appellation), will come to an end with the advent of eschatological salvation. This belief is sometimes expressed by means of two-age terminology, in which this present evil age is set in contrast to the next age, the time of salvation. Even those texts that do not use this two-age terminology, however, implicitly presuppose the idea of the two ages, insofar as they anticipate a the coming of eschatological judgment and salvation (see 1 En 16.1; 18.16; 21.6; Jub. 1.29; T. Moses 1.18; 12.4.

Most second-Temple texts, insofar as they speak of the eschaton, presuppose the two-age teaching. In some texts, this distinction between the two ages is made explicit. 4QTime of Righteousness (4Q215a). contains a description of the advent of the eschatological age, when God will judge the world and the "age of wickedness" will come to an end: "For the age of wickedness has been completed and all evil will pas[s away]" (2.3-4). The age of wickedness will yield to "the time of righteousness" (2.4), also called "the age of peace" (2.5). Later in the text, it is referred to as "the rule {of righteousness} of goodness" (2.9). In 4 Ezra, the author makes use two-age terminology (saeculum = aion = 'olam). "This age (saeculum hoc) (4.27; 6.9; 7.12), also known as the corrupt age (saeculum corruptum) (4.11) stands in contrast to the future age (futurum saeculum) (6.9; 8.1), also referred to as the "greater age" (maius saeculum), the "immortal time" (immortale tempus) (7.119), the future time (futurum tempus) (8.52) and the "future immortal time" (futurum immortale tempus) (7.113). The transition from this age to the future age occurs at the time of the final judgment, following the death of the Messiah and seven days of silence (7.29-44, 113). The future age is created only for the few righteous, at which they will receive what is their due, what this age could not provide (4.27; 8.1-2). The same type of two-age terminology is used in 2 Baruch. In 15.7-8, the coming age is distinguished from this age; the righteous must struggle thought this age in order to reach the coming one. The coming age will be free from corruption, and this is reserved for the righteous (44.12, 15; see also 40.3 and 44.9). 1 En 71:5 (Similitudes of Enoch), an angel announces to Enoch, "He [God] shall proclaim peace to you in the name of the world to come" (see also 1 En 48:7). 2 Enoch distinguishes the "this age of suffering" from "the never-ending age" (66.5-6), also known as the "great age" (58.5; 61.2; 65.7-8; see also 65.10). (See K. Kertelge, “Rechtfertigung” bei Paulus [2 ed.; NTAbh, n.s. 3; Munster: Verlag Aschendorff, 1966] 35-36.)

The present period is marked by disobedience and is ruled by Satan (or a synonymous appellation) and evil spirits under his authority. The next age is marked by obedience and sees the judgment not only of sinners but also of Satan and the spirits under his authority, thereby being deposed from their positions of authority. In the Book of Jubilees, the time of the end will witness the gradual increase of life spans until they approach a thousand years (23:27-29a), and in those days, "There will be no Satan or evil (one) who will destroy" (23:29b), so that the righteous will no longer be troubled by these perverse spirits. Likewise, Jub. 50.5 is an expression of the same eschatological hope: "And jubilees will pass until Israel is purified from all the sin of fornication, and defilement, and uncleanness, and sin and error. And they will dwell in confidence in all the land. And then it will not have any Satan or any evil (one). And the land will be purified from that time and forever." Similarly, in T. Moses 10.1, when the kingdom [of God] appears in creation, then "The devil will have an end."

The theme of the eschatological defeat of Belial and the spirits of deceit occurs with some frequency in Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. In T. Levi, after the seventy weeks, which is coincidental with the end of the seventh period of the degeneration of the priesthood, comes the eschaton, the time of salvation and spiritual renewal. The author has the patriarch Levi predict that God will raise up a new priest, and it is said of this priest: "His star shall rise in heaven as a king," which is likely an allusion to the "star" prophecy of Num 24:17, a passage probably interpreted of the eschatological priest in CD 7.18-19 (see also 4Q175 [Testimonia] 12-13, where Num 24:17 is cited without being interpreted). Among other things, it is said of this priest that Belial shall be bound by him and authority shall be given to his children to trample upon evil spirits (18:12). The idea of the eschatological trampling of evil spirits also occurs in T. Simeon 6.6: "Then all the spirits of deceit will be given over to be trampled under foot, and men will rule over evil spirits." Likewise, in T. Zebu. 9.8, the eschatological promise is made: "And after these things, the Lord himself will rise upon upon you, the light of righteousness, with healing and compassion in his wings. He will release every captive of the sons of men from Belial, and every deceitful spirit will be trampled down." (This is an interpretation of Mal 4:2-3). An identical outlook obtains in T. Dan where the patriarch predicts that "the salvation of the Lord" will arise from the tribes of Judah and Levi, referring to the eschatological king and priest respectively (5.10-11). Then, it is said that he [i.e., God] "will make war against Belial....He shall the captives from Belial, the souls of the holy ones" (see 6.3). In T. Judah 25.3, it is explained that, at the time of the resurrection and restoration of Israel, "There shall no longer be Beliar's spirit of deceit, because he will be thrown into eternal fire."

The Qumran sectarian writings anticipate Belial's eschatological defeat and destruction. According to the War Scroll, Belial and his angels fight in the eschatological war on the side of the sons of darkness, but after a protracted war, the enemies of God, including Belial and the spirits of his lot, will be defeated and destroyed (1QM 14.9, 15; 17.5-6; 18.1-3; 4QM 1 frg. 10 2.15; frg. 11 2.18). In 11QMelch, when Melchizedek, who is probably the archangel Michael, appears at the eschaton, among other things, he will also execute judgment on Belial and the spirits of his lot. In this context, Ps 82:1-2 is interpreted eschatologically of Melchizedek's judgment of the fallen angels: the "god" (elohîm) who takes his stand in the assembly of God (el) is the heavenly being Melchizedek; he will judge in the midst of the other "gods" (elohîm) (2.9-14). The fact that in line 11 it is said that it is God (el) who will judge the peoples, citing Ps 7:8, indicates that the angel Melchizedek is the instrument of God's eschatological judgment. Along the same lines, the reference "Your God reigns" in Isa 52:7 is interpreted to be the reign of Melchizedek, who is a god in the sense of being an angel. Ps 82:2 "How long will you judge unjustly and show partiality to the wicked" is interpreted as follows: "Its interpretation concerns Belial and the spirits of his lot, who rebelled by turning away from the precepts of God" (2.12). Apparently, Ps 82:2 is assumed to speak of the unjust reign of Belial and the spirits of his lot, which will come to an end with the appearance of Melchizedek as eschatological judge. (This interpretation is suggested by the fact that Ps 82:1 says that God presides over the assembly of God and judges among the gods (elohîm). These "gods" are interpreted as angels rather than as human judges. Those addressed in Ps 82:1-2 are again called "gods" and are also called sons of God in Ps 82:6.) 11QMelch 2.13 seems to mean that Melchizedek will become judge on that day and will remove the right to judge (or to rule) from Belial and the spirits of his lot. Finally, 1QS 4.18-19 speaks of how, at his visitation, the time of eschatological salvation and final judgment, God as merciful will put an end to the existence of deceit (4.18-19). It is said that "God will purify by his truth all the works of man and purge for himself some from the sons of man. He will utterly destroy the spirit of deceit from within his flesh" (4.20-21). Although nothing is said of the destruction of Belial or the spirits of his lot, it seems that, given the close connection between the spirit of deceit and the Angel of Darkness (see 1QS 3.21-22), the removal of the former entails the removal of the latter.

Paul holds that the eschatological defeat of Satan and evil spirits under his authority has already occurred through the death and resurrection of Christ. The eschatological promise of liberation from the pernicious influence of Satan and evil spirits has become a present reality, because, for Paul, the time of eschatological salvation has begun. The uniqueness of Paul's view in comparison to second-Temple sources is that, for him, the eschatological defeat of Satan and the spirits under his authority is consequence of Christ's death and resurrection: this is the cosmic effect of the work of Christ. Their defeat occurred neither through an eschatological war on earth, nor as part of the ministry of the eschatological priest, nor by means the eschatological appearance of Melchizedek. Rather, ironically, the defeat of Satan and the spirits under his author took place through the death and resurrection of Christ. For Paul, this is the mystery that has only been revealed in the time of fulfillment; Satan and the evil spirits were not aware that Christ's own death and apparent defeat would ultimately result their eschatological defeat. Consequently, Paul can speak of believers no longer belonging to this age, but being rescued from it.

Consistent with the second-Temple sources, Paul believes that Satan (satanas) exists, having the aim of opposing the realization of the will of God in creation (1 Cor 5:5; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:14-15; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:11). Paul also refers to Satan as "the devil" (diabolos) (Eph 4:27; 6:11; 1 Tim 3:7), Beliar (2 Cor 6:15), "ruler of the power of the air" (Eph 2:2) and "the god of this age" (2 Cor 4:4).

Paul uses several terms to denote evil spirits. The most frequently used terms for these disobedient spirits are archê (ruler) (Col 2:10, 15; 1 Cor 2:6; 15:24; Eph 1:21; 6:12; Rom 8:38-39) and exousia (authority) (Col 2:10, 15; 1 Cor 15:24; Eph 1:21; 6:12); with the exception of Rom 8:38-39, these two terms always occur in tandem. (It should be remembered that, in the Greek translation of 1 Enoch 6, archê denotes the Watchers.) The class of spiritual beings denoted by dunamis (power) refers to evil spirits (1 Cor 15:24). (In the Greek translation of 1 Enoch 20:1, angels are referred to as aggeloi ton dunameon.) The terms thronos (throne) (Col 1:16), kuriotês (dominion) (Eph 1:21; Col 1:16) also seem to denote evil spirits, since they occur in lists that include archê (ruler) and exousia (authority) (dunamis [power] occurs with kuriotês [dominion] in Eph 1:21). (It should be noted that it is possible that thronos (throne) is a synonym for dunamis (power), since these two terms do not occur together in a single list; but this is only a permissive conclusion.) Paul also refers to the kosmokratoras tou skotou toutou (world-rulers of this age) and ta pneumatika tês ponêrias en tois epouraniois (evil spirits in the heavenlies) in Eph 6:12, which clearly refer to disobedient spirits. (These could be synonyms for any term other than archê (ruler) and exousia (authority), since these terms occur in the same context as "world-rulers of this age" and "evil spirits in the heavenlies.") It is certain, therefore, that Paul believes that there are evil spirits. The fact that he uses many different terms for them in lists implies that there are many types of these beings. It is possible that the various designations denote different ranks of evil spirits, in the same way that the Watchers were classified according to their places in the hierarchical structure. Paul also refers to "demons" (1 Cor 10:20-21; 1 Tim 4:1) and "other spirits" (2 Cor 11:4), both of which could be collective names for all the disobedient spirits. Likewise, in Gal 4:3, 9; Col 2:8, 20, Paul speaks of "the elements of the cosmos," which probably denotes all the disobedient spirits taken together. Paul sometimes writes about how Satan attempts adversely to affect believers (1 Cor 7:1-6; 2 Cor 2:5-11; 12:1-7; 1 Thess 2:18; 3:3-5). It should also be stressed that there is no evidence that Paul accepts the story of the Watchers found in second-Temple literature.

6.2.2. The Defeat of Spiritual Powers and Inauguration of the Eschatological Age

In his prayer on behalf of the readers, Paul takes the opportunity of explaining to his readers the cosmic effects of Christ's work.

He says that Christ's resurrection from the dead was also his exaltation to a place of absolute authority in the cosmos. God's power was at work in Christ to raise him from the dead; this was God's eschatological power to bring to realization his eschatological promises. Moreover, Paul says that God was at work, not only to raise Jesus from the dead, but "has seated him at his right hand," which metaphorically expresses that idea of Christ's being accorded absolute cosmic authority. Paul's statement is a unmistakable allusion to Ps 110:1, which Jesus himself interpreted messianically (Mark 12:35-37 = Matt 22:41-46 = Luke 20:41-44; see also Mark 16:19; Acts 2:34; Heb 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2). The "place" where Christ has been installed in a position of absolute authority in the cosmos is identified as "in the heavenlies" (en tois epouraniois) (see 1:3; 2:6). This adverbial phrase represents the substantive use of the adjective epouranios ("heavenly"): "in the heavenly places." The use of the plural implies that there is more than one heaven, which is consistent with Jewish cosmological understanding (Paul believes that even evil spirits dwell "in the heavenlies" [Eph 6:12].) No doubt, Paul believes that Christ's exaltation is to the highest heavenly place (see T. Levi 3.4 "in the highest of all" (en tô anôterô pantôn).

For Christ to be granted such a position of absolute authority implies that it previously belonged to another. Although he does not say so explicitly, consistent with his Jewish religious-historical background, Paul probably believes that, before Christ's resurrection and exaltation, Satan held this position of absolute authority over the cosmos, which he exercised by means of the evil spirits subordinate to him. What is implied in Paul's statement about Christ's exaltation is the eschatological defeat of Satan and evil spirits under his authority, who have now been made subject to Christ. Paul says that Christ is now "above every ruler (archê), authority (exousia), power (dunamis) and dominion (kuriotês) and any name that can be named not only in this age but the age to come" (Eph 1:21). Although he no doubt believes that Christ has been exalted over all spiritual authorities, Paul probably has in mind evil spirits and not angels. Formerly, evil spirits had authority in the cosmos, but now they have yielded to a higher authority; this yielding has been involuntary and, therefore, has the nature of a deposal. These evil spirits sought consistently to undermine the realization of the will of God for the cosmos, and their activities were permitted until the appointed time, the time of eschatological salvation, which Paul expresses as the Christ's being made to sit at the right hand of God. For Christ to be above all evil spirits means means that the dominion of Satan in this world has come to an end.

In T. Levi 3, different orders of angels are identified occupying different heavens (see Hollander and de Jonge, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Commentary, 136-39). The lowest heaven is dark because it sees all the unrighteous deeds of human beings (3:1) (see 2 Bar 53:5; 58:1; 60:1). In the second heaven are found fire (lightning), snow and ice, to be used in the judgment of God. In it are also the winds of affliction for the punishment of sinners. The third to the sixth heavens are occupied by different classes of angels. The third heaven contains "the powers of the hosts" (hai dunameis tôn parembolôn), a class of angel assigned the task of bringing punishment on Beliar and his hosts on the day of judgment (3:3). In the fourth heaven are found two classes of angels called "thrones" (thronoi) and "authorities" (exousiai), who offer praises to God continually (3:8) (see 1 En 61:10; 2 En 20:1). The fifth heaven is inhabited by those angels who answer to the angels of the presence: "There are the angels who bear the answers to the angels of the presence of the Lord" (3:7). This angelic function seems to be the relaying human responses to God to the angels of the presence (see Tobit 12:12, 15). In the sixth heaven are found "the angels of the presence of the Lord" (hoi aggeloi tou prosôpou kuriou), who function as priests offering "reasonable and bloodless offerings" for the propiation of the Lord for all the sins (of ignorance) of the righteous (3:5-6). Finally, in the highest heaven dwells "great glory" (1 En 14:20; 102:3), referring to God. God is said to dwell in the "holy of holies," implying that the seventh heaven is being conceived as part of a Temple ((3:4). The idea of the hierarchical differentiation of spirits was probably also extended to the realm of evil spirits, which serves as the presupposition of Eph 1:20-21.

Paul is emphatic that there is no evil spirit capable of opposing Christ, now or ever. He expresses this idiomatically by saying that Christ is above "any name that can be named not only in this age but the age to come." Any "name" refers to any type of spirit, in particular any evil spirit, including Satan, whereas the adverbial phrase " in this age but the age to come" means "never," for, in Jewish understanding, the two ages encompasses all time. Paul summarizes his position in Eph 1:22a by saying that "All things have been put in subjection under his feet." (This may be an allusion to Ps 8:6, which the author of Hebrews interprets messianically of Christ's exaltation [Heb 2:5-9].) He means that Christ now occupies a position of supreme authority, at the right hand of God, so that no spiritual being can oppose him.

Paul explains that believer have been granted the privilege of sharing in the eschatological authority granted to Christ; this means that the believer now no longer lives under the authority and influence of Satan.

Paul describes the pre-Christian existence of his readers as both being dead because of sin and living according to "the age of this world," according to "the prince of the power of the air" (2:1-2). To be "dead in transgressions and sins" is convertible with living in "the age of this world." When he says that his readers were "dead" (nekrous), he means not literally dead but spiritually dead, that is separated from God. This is a metaphor to describe the pre-conversion spiritual condition of his readers (see the use of the metaphor of death in 1QHa 11[3].19; 19[11].10-14 and Philo's writings: Leg. all. 1.24, 33; 3.14; Det. pot. 20; Quod deus 19; De fug. 10, 15, 21; De praem. 12; De somn. 2.9). There is probably no difference in meaning between "trespasses" [paraptômata] and "sins" [hamartiai] in the phrase "dead in your transgressions and sins"; they are synonymous terms, so that the phrase "transgressions and sins" is a hendiadys, two words used to express one idea. Their spiritual death was "in your transgressions and sins," by which Paul means because of their disobedience to God. (The dative phrase tois paraptômasin kai tais hamartiais is causal; see Rom 11:20.) Paul says that his readers formerly (pote) "walked," that is to say, lived "in" (en) "transgressions and sins." The preposition "in" refers to the moral sphere in which the readers lived, or, in other words, to the fact that their lives were characterized by disobedience. Paul adds that his readers' lives in disobedience was "according to the age of this world" (kata ton aiôna tou kosmou toutou). The preposition kata denotes the standard according to which the readers lived their lives. That standard was "the age of this world." In his other letters, Paul refers to "this age" (Rom 12:2; 1 Cor 1:20; 2:6, 8; 3:18; 2 Cor 4:4; Eph 1:21) and "this world" (1 Cor 3:19), by which he means more or less the same thing as "the age of this world." (The phrase "wisdom of this world" [1 Cor 3:19] is a synonym for "the wisdom of this age" [1 Cor 2:6].) Each term denotes the pre-eschatological period of human history, the period marked by disobedience and ruled by Satan and the spirits under his authority. The somewhat redundant genitive phrase "the age of this world" is a genitive of quality meaning "the period of time consisting of this world." (The exegete must keep in mind that redundant genitive constructions are characteristic of Ephesians.) It is not surprising that in apposition to "according to the age of this world" is found the prepositional phrase "according to the prince of the power of the air."

The person who lives according to"the age of this world," also lives "according to the prince of the power of the air" (kata ton archonta tês exousias tou aeros), which is another name for Satan (see the synonymous terms "devil" [diabolos] in 4:27; 6:11 and "the evil one" [ho ponêros] in 6:16). This describes the fact that the readers were subject to the rule of Satan (which explains why he is called a ruler [archôn]). It is Satan's primary aim to lead human beings into disobedience, and so be "dead in transgressions and sins." (The third factor, in addition to "age of this world" and the rule of "the prince of the power of the air," determining the lives of the readers is said to be "flesh" (sarx): "Among whom [the sons of disobedience] you formerly lived in the desires of the flesh." See Eph 2:3) The word "power" (exousia) probably means "domain," and "air" relates to "power" as a genitive of quality: the domain characterized by "the air." The phrase "domain of the air" relates to "ruler" as an objective genitive: what the archôn rules is "the domain of the air." The term "air" denotes the location of the domain relative to the world and the heavens: Satan does not reign in the heavens, but in "the air," the spiritual realm "beneath" the heavens but "above" the world, over which his domain extends (see Eph 6:12). Paul is probably accommodating his terminology to the belief current in his day that the "air" was the dwelling place of evil spirits (see Diog. Laet. 8.32; Plutarch, Mor. 274B; Celsus 8.35; PGM 13. 278; 4.1134; 2699; 3042; 7.314; Philo, Plant. 14; Gig. 6-7; Conf. ling. 174 al.; Mart. Isa. 11.23; T. Benj. 3.4). (It is possible the "air" is the equivalent of the lowest heaven in T. Levi 3.2-3, where spirits of punishment reside.) In 2 Cor 4:4, Satan is similarly described as "the god of this age" (ho theos tou aionos toutou). Satan is the "god" or ruler of this period of human history, marked by disobedience. Satan is further characterized as "the spirit now at work in the sons of disobedience" (tou pneumatos tou nun energountos en tois huiois tês apeitheias). (The phrase stands in apposition to "the prince of the power of the air," even though it is in the genitive, which is grammatically incorrect, but probably influenced by the preceding genitives.) The phrase "sons of disobedience" is a Semitism denoting disobedient human beings, those who live in "the age of this world." Paul affirms that Satan is responsible for the fact that human beings are disobedient, that he has influenced them for the worse. (As seen above, the idea of Satan's leading human beings away from God and his influence on individuals towards disobedience is a common idea in second-Temple sources.) As a result of being under the rule of Satan, human beings lived in the sphere of the "flesh" (2:3), being thereby "children of wrath" in the sense of being objects of God's eschatological condemnation.

In contrast to this former state described in Eph 2:1-3, Paul explains that God has made believers alive with Christ (sunezôopoisen tô Christô) (2:5). (The coordinating conjunction de is adversative, meaning "but." The main clause beginning with "But God..." [2:3] stands in contrast to the participial clause [followed by relative clauses] beginning with "And you were...." The contrast is between what the readers were formerly and what God has done for them.) The description of believers as "being made alive with Christ" occurs elsewhere only in Col 2:13 (but with the prepositional phrase sun autô ["with him"] rather than the dative tô Christô). What he means is that believers who were formerly spiritually dead have now been made alive spiritually (The dative tô Christô is controlled by the prefix sun, and so is a dative of association: "with Christ"). It is clearly implied is that being made alive spiritually is made possible because of Christ's own bodily resurrection (see Rom 6:5-11). Moreover, Paul says that believers have been raised to the status of being seated with Christ in the heavenlies (2:6) (see Col 3:1) (see Eph 1:20-22a). The point is that a believer's spiritual status is to share authority with Christ. In particular, Paul is describing figuratively the authority now granted to believers over Satan and his subordinate spirits. No longer are they ruled by Satan; no longer is Satan at work in them for disobedience, since they share in Christ's authority over the spiritual world. The adverbial phrase "in Christ Jesus" modifying the verb "he raised us up and seated us" denotes that this new spiritual status is the result of Christ, his death and resurrection.

Paul connects Christ's work of providing forgiveness of sins, having canceled the written code against us (see Col 2:13b-14) with the disarming of the rulers and authorities (apekdusamenos tas archas kai tas exousias). The verb apekduomai is in the middle voice and means literally "to take off one's clothes," but it is also used with the active sense of "to disarm oneself," in the sense of rendering oneself powerless. In the early Christian hymn cited earlier (1:15-20), all spiritual beings, including the "rulers and authorities" are said to be created "in" (that is, by the agency of ) Christ, so that there is no absolute dualism between God and those spiritual beings who oppose him (see 1QM 13.10-11). Nevertheless, by means of Christ's saving work, God disarms "the rulers and authorities," in the sense of removing them from positions of power over human beings and the cosmos generally (The subject of "to disarm" is God, since there is no change of subject from 2:14 to 2:15). Although Paul does not say so explicitly, it follows that, if the rulers and authorities are removed from power then so is Satan, their leader, who rules through them. Perhaps, Paul makes no reference to Satan because the heresy that he attempts to refute accords no role to Satan, but exalts various other spirit beings, known as "the elemental principles of the cosmos" (2:8) and "angels" (Col 2:18-19). Paul adds that God has made public display (edeigmatisen en parrêsia) of the "rulers and authorities" and has led them in triumphal procession (thriambeusas autous) (He used this image ironically of the apostles in 2 Cor 2:14-16b). This is a metaphor drawn from the Roman practice of marching its conquered foes in a public procession in Rome, in order to glorify the victorious Roman army and its generals and humiliate their conquered enemies. Paul's point is that Christ's work includes the defeat of the evil spirits who formerly ruled this age; no longer will they have the same access to human beings in order to lead them away from God. It is as if they are so completely conquered that God has put them on public display, leading them in triumphal procession. The adverbial phrase en autô following "leading them in triumphal procession" has a causal sense (en means "by the agency of"), but the question that remains unanswered concerns the antecedent of autô. If the pronoun refers to Christ, then Paul is saying that Christ is the means by which God defeats the "rulers and authorities." In the same way that they were created "in him" (Col 1:16), so they were defeated "in him" (2:15). If the antecedent of autô, however, is the "the cross" (2:14), the grammatically correct option, then Paul is affirming that Christ's ignominious death was ironically the means by which "the powers and authorities" were defeated.

In Col 2:20 (see 2:8) and Gal 4:3, 8-10, Paul speaks about how believers are no longer subject to the "elements of the cosmos" (ta stoicheia tou kosmou). Although there is disagreement on this issue, in each case, it seems that what he means by the term "elements of the cosmos" is evil spirits, who exercise authority in "this age," the period in human history marked by disobedience. In both passages, the "elements of the cosmos" lead human beings astray through false teaching. It must be remembered that in second-Temple sources, evil spirits lead human beings astray through false teaching and by posing as gods, who demand worship. Paul's choice of he term "the elements of the cosmos" is probably an accommodation to his Hellenized readers; the interpretation that he gives of "the elements of the cosmos," however, is distinctly Jewish, since he represents these as evil spirits, who seek to thwart the realization of the will of God. In Hellenistic syncretism, the term ta stoicheia tou kosmou not only refers to the four basic material elements, earth, water, air and fire, but also to spirits.

The Hellenistic Jewish text known as Testament of Solomon has terminological parallels to Paul's letters. In this text, Solomon encounters seven spirits who identify themselves as "the elements, the comic rulers of darkness" (stoicheia kosmokratorês tou skotous) (8.2) and another group of thirty-six spirits who refer to themselves as "the thirty-six elements, the cosmic rulers of darkness of this age" (ta triakonta hex stoicheia, hoi kosmokratorês tou skotous tou aiônos toutou) (18.2). Although this text postdates the New Testament, arguably the terminology used reflects earlier usage.

E. Schwiezer argues that the phrase "the elements of the cosmos" (ta stoicheia tou kosmou) means the physical elements—earth, water, air and fire—, as it does in all literary sources until the second century ("Slaves of the Elements and Worshippers of Angels: Gal 4:3, 9 and Col 2:8, 18, 20"). It was believed of the impure soul, that, when upon death it sought to escape the physical world by ascending and giving back to each element the corresponding part of its nature, it would be pulled down and imprisoned in the strife of the constant interchange of the elements. This is what the Colossians feared, which explains their ascetic practices: they sought to purify the soul by abstinence. Moreover, part of the preparation for being able to ascend through the elements was the worship of angels, who are able to help those who call upon them.

Paul asks the Colossians why, if they have died with Christ to the "elements of the cosmos," they act as if they still live in "this world" and subject themselves to false teaching in the form of behavioral regulations.

It is probable that Paul attributes the false teaching at Colossae to the influence of evil spirits, so that submission to the teaching is submission to the authority of these spiritual beings. Similarly, Paul says that the Galatians formerly lived as enslaved to the "elements of the cosmos" (4:3); from what he says in 4:8-9, this enslavement was to evil spirits posing as gods, "what by nature are not gods" (tois phusei mê ousin theois). The implication is that the elements of the cosmos of Gal 4:3 are the evil spirits of Gal 4:8, to which the Galatians were once enslaved.

Paul now marvels that the Galatians, now free from "the elements of the cosmos" willingly return to their former status as enslaved to them, insofar as they accept false teaching, in particular the idea that righteousness comes from submission to the Law, in particular observing the Jewish calendar (4:10). He calls these evil spirits "weak and powerless elements" (ta asthenê kai ptocha stoicheia) (4:9), probably because they no longer have the authority that they formerly had, having been defeated and rendered powerless by Christ.

Paul says that Christ "gave himself for our sins" and then specifies that a purpose for Christ's saving act was "in order to rescue us from this present evil age" (hopos exelêtai hêmas ek tou aiônos tou enestôtos ponêrou) (see also Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 3:22). Paul's use of the term "this present evil age" presupposes the Jewish two-age understanding of history. In his understanding, the period of eschatological salvation has been inaugurated by means of Christ's death. Believers, the beneficiaries of Christ's work, can, therefore, be described as having been rescued from this present evil age, in the sense that they are no longer under the domination of Satan and his subordinate spirits. Although Paul does not say so explicitly, to be delivered from this present evil age presupposes that believers are "in" the eschatological age, but only in its inaugural stages of realization.

(As parallels to the phrase "this present evil age," see "this age" [ho aiôn houtos] in Rom 12:2; 1 Cor 1:20, 2:6, 8; 3:18; 2 Cor 4:4; "this now age" [ho nun aiôn] in 1 Tim 6:17; 2 Tim 4:10; Titus 2:12; "this world" or "the world" [ho kosmos or ho kosmos houtos] in 1 Cor 1:27-28; 3:19; 5:10; 7:31; "the now time" [ho nun kairos] in Rom 8:18.)

In Rom 3:26, Paul uses the phrase "the now time" (ho nun kairos) to denote the time of the fulfillment of God's salvation-historical purposes by means of Christ's death. He explains that God left the sins committed previously unpunished until he could make human beings righteous by the imputation of a status of righteousness but still be righteous, insofar as Christ's death as hilastêrion provides him with an objective basis by which to impute righteousness to the unrighteous. This time is called "the now time." Thus, even though Paul uses it in Rom 8:18 to denote the "this age," (or equivalent term) the phrase "the now time" (ho nun kairos) also refers to the time of the climax of God's salvation-historical purposes. (Other uses of "the now time" [ho nun kairos] without a clear eschatological meaning include Rom 11:5; 1 Cor 4:5; 2 Cor 8:14.)

Similarly, in Rom 5:6, Paul writes that "When we weak, Christ died for the ungodly at the designated time (kata kairon)." The time that Christ died on behalf of the ungodly and weak (those who could not help themselves) was that determined by God. A parallel phrase occurs in Eph 1:10: "the fulfillment of the times" (to plêrôma tôn kairôn). In spite of the use of the plural ("times"), this phrase refers to the time appointed by God to bring to a climax his salvation-historical purposes through Christ; the implication may be that before the salvation-historical climax there were many periods of human history preparatory of this climax. (See the use of kairos with an eschatological meaning in LXX Dan 7:22 [kairos]; 8:17, 19 [hora tou kairou]; 9:26, 27[kairos sunteleias]; 11:27 [eis kairon].)

Paul explains to the Corinthians that what happened in the past to Israel should serve as a "type" (tupos) for the Corinthians, for whom "the ends of the ages has come" (ta telê tôn aiônôn katêntêken). Paul's understanding of history is Jewish, for he sees history as culminating in the coming of eschatological salvation. His reference to the "ends" of the "ages" could be interpreted to mean that Paul views the period prior to the advent of the eschatological salvation as consisting of more than one historical period, all together designated as "this age," that is, the pre-eschatological period of human history.

It is also possible, however, that use of the plural ("ends of the ages") to refer to the period of time preceding the coming age is idiomatic, so that the phrase should be translated merely as "the end of the age."

If so, then Paul sees human history as divided into two periods, this age and the time of eschatological salvation, in which case he would not have in view any subdivisions of "this age." According to BAG (aiôn 2b), both words, ta telê and hoi aiônes, could be translated as singulars, so that the phrase ta telê tôn aiônôn means "the end of the age." The same phrase occurs with the same meaning in T. Levi 14.1 (c h i j). At any rate, Paul understands his generation as being contemporary with "the ends of the ages" and for that reason participants in an incipient eschatological salvation.

The Qumran community saw itself as standing on the threshold of the time of eschatological salvation. The following is offered as an interpretation of Hab 2:3: "The final time is extended and exceeds all that the prophets say, because the mysteries of God are wonderful." In Habakkuk, Yahweh tells the prophet to wait for the revelation, which will surely come. In the Qumran community's interpretation of this passage what will surely come is the eschaton. It is said that God instructed the prophet to write down what was to happen to the last generation, which means the generation that will witness eschatological judgment (1QpHab 7.7-8; see also 2.7, 10); God, however, did not reveal to Habakkuk the full meaning of what he wrote down. What he and all the other prophets recorded about the eschaton was to remain "mysteries of the words of his servants, the prophets" until the appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness, to whom these mysteries were revealed (7.4-5; see 2.6-10). Different from the Qumran sectarians, Paul holds that the time of eschatological salvation has actually arrived.

The inception of eschatological salvation (or the new covenant) is coincidental with Christ's installment as "Lord" (kurios). In fact, Jesus' appointment to the position of "Lord" is a presupposition of the inception of the former. The exercise of Lordship is part of Christ's soteriological task: Christ is Lord because through him the time of eschatological salvation has begun; in other words, his Lordship is defined by his role as mediator of eschatological salvation: He is Lord insofar as he makes eschatological salvation possible. (Thus, these statements are convertible).

The believer's confession that "Jesus is Lord" [see Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3] is usually taken as a pre-Pauline formula, which Paul adopts; to confess Jesus as Lord is to believe in him as the Christ and to place oneself under his authority. In a Hellenistic setting, to make such a confession is also to deny the "lordship" (and deity) of pagan deities and also the Roman emperor. Thus, in 1 Cor 8:6, in contrast to the "many gods" and "many lords" confessed among the gentiles, Paul confesses one God, the Father, and one Lord, Jesus Christ. (Although he does not say so explicitly, Paul probably holds that Jesus became Lord upon his resurrection and exaltation.) (See R. Longenecker, The Christology of Early Jewish Christianity, 120-36.)

A. Use of Title "Lord"

The term "Lord" (kurios) is the most common title that Paul uses of Jesus: "Jesus Christ our Lord" (passim) "Lord Jesus Christ" (passim), "Christ Jesus my Lord" (Phil 3:8), "Lord Jesus" (Rom 14:14; 1 Cor 5:5; 6:11), "Christ Jesus Lord" (2 Cor 4:5), "Christ Jesus our Lord" (Eph 3:11), "the Lord Christ" (Col 3:24), "Christ Jesus our Lord" (1 Tim 1:2). (As already indicated, Paul often uses simply "the Lord" to refer to Jesus.) As a title, "Lord" denotes Jesus' exaltation to the status of authority over the whole cosmos, including the spiritual realm and, of course, the church, which is why believers confess him as Lord (see Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Eph 4:4-6; Col 2:6). As Lord, he is appointed to reign over all creation, and his reign will continue to expand until it climaxes in the total subjugation of all things (1 Cor 15:24-28). In 2 Cor 4:5, Paul says that he and the other apostles do not preached themselves but "Jesus Christ [as] Lord." He means that the content of his preaching is not the apostles' own accomplishments, but the fact that Jesus as been appointed as Lord over the whole cosmos.

In the christological hymn in Phil 2:9-11, Christ's installment as Lord is described.

It is explained that, in response to Jesus' humbling of himself, even "to the point of death, the death of the cross" (mechri thanatou, thanatou de staurou), God exalted him and gave him a name above all names. (The verb translated as "exalt" is an unusual compound: (huper + hupsein ), and implies that Jesus has been exalted to the highest position possible, a hyper-exaltation.) The name bestowed on Jesus was "Lord" (kurios), which implies his absolute authority in the cosmos. (A name is expressive of authority and power.) (On Jesus' exaltation, see Acts 2:33; 5:31.) Of course, Jesus' exaltation presupposes his resurrection; the hymn emphasizes, however, his post-resurrection installment to the position of absolute authority.) The purpose of God's granting Jesus a name above all names is that, in response to the absolute authority now possessed by Jesus ("in the name of Jesus"), "Every knee should bow and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord." (The en ["in"] has a causal sense: "because of the name or authority of Jesus"). This refers no doubt to the eschatological subjugation of all beings, including spiritual beings, to Christ. In other words, although he is Lord now, Jesus will not be universally acknowledge as such until the end (see 1 Cor 15:24-25). To bend the knee is a symbol of submission. The phrase "Every knew shall bow and every tongue confess" derives from Isa 45:22-25, which describes the final universal homage given to Yahweh by the inhabitants of the earth. According to the hymn, this event takes place through the universal recognition of and submission to Jesus Christ.

There has been much debate over the origin of the title "Lord" (kurios) as applied to Jesus. Scholars of the History of Religions School claimed that such a confession originated in a Hellenistic environment (Boussett, Kurios Christos; Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 1.121-28). In oriental and Hellenistic religions, a god was often addressed as kurios "Lord" (e.g., Lord Serapis) (A goddess would be addressed as kuria) (see 1 Cor 8:5: "There are many gods and lords in the world"). Also, the Roman emperors came to be regarded as divine even while living and were addressed as "Lord," so that divinity and lordship came to be closely associated (see Mart. Pol. 8.2). On this theory, in a Hellenistic religious environment, the exalted Christ became a divine figure and was addressed accordingly as "Lord Jesus" (Christ). Thus, in a Hellenistic context, to call Jesus Lord is to attribute divinity to him. This explanation of the origin of the title kurios as applied to Jesus founders on the fact that the earliest Aramaic speaking church confessed Jesus as "Lord" (mar); this means that the confession of Jesus as Lord did not originate in a Hellenistic context. That this is so is proven by the fact that Paul quotes an early prayer in Aramaic that was so integral to earliest Christianity that it became formulaic, so that it was felt to be inappropriate to translate it for Greek-speaking believers: Marana tha ("Our Lord, come") (1 Cor 16:22; see a Greek translation in Rev 22:20 and Did. 10:6). The attribution of universal Lordship to Jesus as the Christ is consistent with the messianic interpretation of Ps 110:1 (Mark 12:36 = Matt 22:44 = Luke 20:42-43; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13): the Messiah is exalted to a position of authority, at the right hand of God. This no doubt is its theological origin. Whether Paul means to equate Jesus with God by his use of kurios is open to debate. At least this much is true: the designation of Jesus as kurios facilitated the identification of Jesus with Yahweh, since kurios was the word used to translate the tetragrammaton in the LXX. (See Cullmann, The Christology of the New Testament, chap. 7; C. E. B. Cranfield, The Epistle to the Romans (ICC n.s.; 2 vols.; Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1975, 1979) 2.528-30).