1. The
Idea of the Davidic Messiah as Teacher
2 . General References to Jesus as Teacher in Synoptic Gospels
2.1. Gospel of Mark
2.2. Material Unique to the Gospel of
Luke
2.3. Material Unique to the Gospel of
Matthew
3 . Jesus' Pedagogical Method
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Mark 4:10-12 = Matthew 13:10-17
= Luke 8:9-10
3.3. Mark 4:33-34 = Matt 13:34-35
3.4. Matt 7:6
Ahead to: The Kingdom of God as Present
.
1. The Idea of the Davidic Messiah as Teacher
Isaiah prophesies that the spirit of Yahweh would rest upon the eschatological Davidic king, or Messiah (Isa 11:2-3). The spirit of Yahweh is called the "the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the spirit of counsel and of power, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Yahweh." These genitive phrases are genitives of purpose, so that the spirit of Yahweh is given to the eschatological Davidic king in order that he might have wisdom, understanding and knowledge, among other things. For this reason, he will be qualified to judge the earth. This portrayal of the eschatological Davidic king as possessing wisdom, understanding and knowledge finds expression in Jewish texts from the second-Temple period, which are unmistakably dependent upon Isa 11:2-3. The author of Psalms of Solomon, extrapolates from Isa 11:2-3, and states about the eschatological Davidic that, because he will be "wise in the counsel of understanding" (sophon en boulê suneseôs) (17:37), "his words will be purer than the finest gold" and "his words will be as the words of the holy ones, among the sanctified people" (17:43) (Ps. Sol. 17:37, 43). The eschatological Davidic king, called "son of David" (17:21), will have have a knowledge comparable to that of the angels ("holy ones"). (See Reisner, Jesus als Lehrer, 304-30.) Likewise in the Similtudes of Enoch, it is said about the Elect One, who is the pre-existent Messiah-figure, that "in him dwells the spirit of wisdom, and the spirit which gives insight, and the spirit of understanding and of might," which intertextually derives from Isa 11:2-3 (1 En. 49:3). But this text may not antedate the time of Jesus.
It is possible that 4Q534 refers to the Davidic Messiah, since the one to whom the text refers is called the "elect one," which may be a messianic title (see 1 Enoch 49.2-4; 51.5a, 2-3; 61.8-9; 62.1). If so, then it is said of the Davidic Messiah that he "will acquire wisdom and learn understanding" (1.7) and further that "His wisdom will reach all the people" (1.8). He is said in his youth to know nothing until "he knows the three books" (1.4). The other interpretive option is that the one to whom 4Q534 refers is Noah. |
Apart from this portrayal of the eschatological Davidic king based on Isa 11 as endued with the spirit of Yahweh thereby receiving wisdom, understanding and knowledge, there is no strong expectation that the eschatological Davidic king would be a religious teacher. Ps. Sol. 17:43 comes the closest to describing the Messiah as such, but falls short of seeing this as a distinctive of his calling. It seems that second-Temple Jews could not conceive the coming eschatological Davidic king as engaged to any significant extent in religious teaching. Since Jews of the second-Temple period perceived the need for an eschatological figure who would teach the people the ways of God, there arose the expectation of an eschatological priest whose function would be that of a teacher, in particular, an interpreter of the Law and prophets. Because Aaron was anointed when he became high priest, the eschatological priest is referred to sometimes as another "Messiah" ("anointed one") to appear along side of the Davidic Messiah. The Davidic Messiah, on the other hand, takes on the role of military leader and king. Jesus, however, assumes the title of Davidic Messiah and the role of religious teacher, in contrast to popular expectation. He combines in one person what some Jews believed would be accomplished by two "anointed" men.
| In CD 6.11 it is stated that there will arise "one who will teach righteousness at the end of days." The phrase 'the end of days" qualifies this teacher as eschatological. This eschatological teacher is probably identical with the priestly Messiah, since the priestly Messiah is likewise supposed to be a religious teacher, as is clear from other statements in the Qumran sectarian texts. In a complicated pesher-type interpretation in CD (A) 7.19-20, the "star" mentioned in Amos 5:26 is said to be identical to the "star" in Num 24:17; this "star" is understood as "the interpreter of the Law who will come to Damascus" (probably symbolic of the Qumran community). He will be accompanied by the "prince of the congregation,' who is the Davidic or royal Messiah (see 1QM 5.1; 4Q285 frg. 5. 1-4; 1QSb 5.20 for other references to the "Prince of the Congregation"). Although he is not said to be a priest, this eschatological interpreter of the Law referred to in CD 7.19-20 is probably the priestly Messiah who is to appear in tandem with the Davidic or royal Messiah (see 1QS 9.9-11; CD 19.5-11; 1QSa 2.11-15; 4QFlor [4Q174] 1.11; 4Q161 [4QpIsa] frags. 8-10.18-25). Evidence for this is that T. Levi 18:2-14 speaks of a new priest whom the Lord will raise up from the tribe of Levi and connects this eschatological figure with the "star" of Num 24:17. The eschatological priest shall bring enlightenment to the world, as the priests were intended to do from the beginning (18.3-4, 9); in this regard, Isa 11:2 is said to be fulfilled of him (18.7). (In T. Sim. 7; T. Dan 5.10; T. Naph. 5, 8:2; T. Jos. 19:11 and T. Benj. 11, the tribes of Judah and Levi are singled out as the source of Israel's eschatological salvation.) The priestly Messiah as teacher seems also to be described in 4Q541 [Aaron A] frg. 9. col. 1. 3-4 (parallel to T. Levi 18). This probable eschatological figure is said to "atone for the sons of his generation," which is consistent with his role as priest. In addition, however, he clearly assumes the role of teacher: "His word is like a word of heaven, and his teaching is according to the will of God." This same eschatological priest also assumes the role of teacher in 1QpHab 2.5-10: "They ... will not believe when they hear all that is going [to happen to] the final generation from the mouth of the Priest whom God has placed wi[thin the Community] to foretell the fulfillment of all the words of His servants, the prophets." (See J. Collins, The Scepter and the Star, chap. 5.) |
Question
Did Jews in Jesus' time expect the Davidic Messiah to be a teacher?
2. General References to Jesus as Teaching in the Synoptic Gospels
Jesus is known as a teacher (didaskolos) by the people. He sets time aside specifically to teach (didaskein) the people in the Temple, in synagogues in Galilee and Judea, out of doors and even in a boat. (Josephus explains that every Sabbath Jews assembled together in order to learn the Law [Apion 2.175]; Jesus takes advantage of this practice.) He is also sometimes said "to proclaim" (kêrussein) the Kingdom of God, which is really a form of public teaching. Jesus is described as going to the cities and towns in Galilee with the intention of teaching the people, presumably about the Kingdom of God. In addition, he teaches his disciples privately. He is well received by the people as a teacher, and is perceived as having an authority that the scribes do not have. The people are even willing to endure physical hardship to hear him teach. Jesus also sends his disciples out to proclaim the Kingdom of God; no doubt, he has given them teaching material relating to the Kingdom of God, so that their task was more than simply stating the fact that the Kingdom of God has drawn near (see H. Schürmann, "Die vorösterlichen Anfänge der Logientradition"). It is implied in m. Abot 1.4; 3.2, 6 that for the early rabbis sitting was the common position for teaching. Jesus likewise is said to be sitting when teaching (Matt 5:1; 26:55; Mark 4:1; Luke 5:3). The following passages from the synoptic gospels support these general conclusions.
2.1.1. Mark 1:21 = Luke 4:31
| Mark 1:21: They went into Capernaum; and immediately on the Sabbath he entered the synagogue and began to teach. | Luke
4:31: And he came down to Capernaum, a city of Galilee, and he was
teaching them on the Sabbath. |
Jesus teaches in the synagogue in Capernaum.
2.1.2. Mark 1:22 = Luke 4:32; Matt 7:28-29
| Mark 1:22: They were amazed at his teaching; for He was teaching them as one having authority, and not as the scribes. | Luke 4:31-32: And they were amazed at his teaching, for his message was with authority. |
| Matt 7:28-29 When Jesus had finished these words, the crowds were amazed at his teaching; for he was teaching them as one having authority, and not as their scribes. |
The people who hear Jesus marvel at his teaching because he is perceived as teaching with authority unlike the teachers of the Law. Mark and Luke include this statement about Jesus' teaching after he taught in the synagogue in Capernaum, whereas Matthew has a very similar statement situated after Jesus' parable about the Two Foundations. (No doubt, people marveled at Jesus' teaching frequently.)
2.1.3. Mark 1:39 = Luke 4:44
| Mark 1:39: And he went into their synagogues throughout all Galilee, proclaiming and casting out the demons. | Luke 4:44: So he kept on proclaiming in the synagogues of Judea. |
Jesus goes about proclaiming in the synagogues of Galilee; although not stated, what he is proclaiming is the appearance of the Kingdom of God.
2.1.4. Mark 2:13
| And he went out again by the seashore; and all the people were coming to him, and he was teaching them. |
Jesus teaches the crowds by the shore of the sea of Galilee, who come to him there.
2.1.5. Mark 4:1
| He began to teach again by the sea. And such a very large crowd gathered to him that he got into a boat in the sea and sat down; and the whole crowd was by the sea on the land. |
As an introduction to his parable chapter, Mark writes that Jesus teaches near the Sea (of Galilee). Because the crowd becomes so large, he gets into a boat, sits down in it and teaches the people from the boat while they are still on land. It would seem that the crowd has been forcing Jesus backwards into the water, which requires him to teach from a boat.
2.1.6. Mark 6:2 = Matt 13:54
| Mark
6:2 When the Sabbath came, he began to teach in the synagogue; and
the many listeners were astonished, saying, "Where did this man
get these things, and what is this wisdom given to Him?" |
Matt 13:54: He came to his hometown and began teaching them in their synagogue, so that they were astonished, and said, "Where did this man get this wisdom?" |
Jesus teaches in the synagogue in Nazareth, his hometown. The people who hear him are amazed at the wisdom shown in his teaching.
2.1.7. Mark 6:6b
| And he was going around the towns teaching |
Jesus travels about the towns of Galilee teaching.
2.1.8. Mark 6:7-12 = Matt 10:5-14; 11:1 = Luke 9:1-6
Mark 6:7-12 7 And he summoned the twelve and began to send them out in pairs, and gave them authority over the unclean spirits; 8 and he instructed them that they should take nothing for their journey, except a mere staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belt—9 but to wear sandals; and he added, "Do not put on two tunics." 10 And he said to them, "Wherever you enter a house, stay there until you leave town. 11 Any place that does not receive you or listen to you, as you go out from there, shake the dust off the soles of your feet for a testimony against them." 12 They went out and proclaimed that men should repent. |
Matt 10:5-14 5 These twelve Jesus sent out after instructing them: "Do not go in the way of the gentiles, and do not enter any city of the Samaritans 6 but rather go to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. 7 And as you go, proclaim, saying, 'The kingdom of heaven is at hand.' 8 Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out demons. Freely you received, freely give. 9 Do not acquire gold, or silver, or copper for your money belts, 10 or a bag for your journey, or even two tunics, or sandals, or a staff; for the worker is worthy of his support. 11 And whatever city or village you enter, inquire who is worthy in it, and stay at his house until you leave that city. 12 As you enter the house, give it your greeting. 13 If the house is worthy, give it your blessing of peace. But if it is not worthy, take back your blessing of peace. 14 Whoever does not receive you, nor heed your words, as you go out of that house or that city, shake the dust off your feet. 15 Truly I say to you, it will be more tolerable for the land of Sodom and Gomorrah in the day of judgment than for that city. 11:1 When Jesus had finished giving instructions to His twelve disciples, he departed from there to teach and proclaim in their cities. |
Luke 9:1-6 1 And He called the twelve together, and gave them power and authority over all the demons and to heal diseases. 2 And He sent them out to proclaim the kingdom of God and to perform healing. 3 And he said to them, "Take nothing for your journey, neither a staff, nor a bag, nor bread, nor money; and do not even have two tunics apiece. 4 Whatever house you enter, stay there until you leave that city. 5 And as for those who do not receive you, as you go out from that city, shake the dust off your feet as a testimony against them." 6 Departing, they began going throughout the towns, proclaiming the good news and healing everywhere.
|
Jesus sends out the twelve to teach and to proclaim the Kingdom of God and that people should repent. Probably, he has given his disciples some teaching material about the Kingdom of God, so that they simply did not proclaim the simple fact of the appearance of the Kingdom of God (see Luke 10:1-12). This may have included some of the synoptic materials of the Kingdom of God.
2.1.9. Mark 6:33-36 = Luke 9:10-12
Mark 6:33-36 33 The people
saw them going, and many recognized them and ran there together
on foot from all the cities, and got there ahead of them. 34 When
he went ashore, Jesus saw a large crowd, and he felt compassion
for them because they were like sheep without a shepherd; and he
began to teach them many things. 35 When it was already quite late,
his disciples came to him and said, "This place is desolate
and it is already quite late; 36 send them away so that they may
go into the surrounding countryside and villages and buy themselves
something to eat." |
Luke 9:10-12 10 When the apostles returned, they gave an account to him of all that they had done. Taking them with him, he withdrew by himself to a city called Bethsaida. 11 But the crowds were aware of this and followed him; and welcoming them, he began speaking to them about the kingdom of God and curing those who had need of healing. 12 Now the day was ending, and the twelve came and said to him, "Send the crowd away, that they may go into the surrounding villages and countryside and find lodging and get something to eat; for here we are in a desolate place." |
Jesus and his disciples attempt to withdraw to a secluded place for a time in order to escape from the crowds of people who follow him. Luke identifies this as Bethsaida, which is in the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. But people travel by foot to where his boat lands, so Jesus must abandon his original plan. Instead, somewhere in the country, he begins to teach them. Mark's version says that he teaches them many things, whereas Luke says that he speaks to them about the Kingdom of God. The reason that the 5,000 men plus women and children need to be fed is because they have been listening to Jesus' teachings for so long. (Luke adds that Jesus also heals people.)
2.1.10. Mark 9:30-31
| 30 From there they went out and began to go through Galilee, and he did not want anyone to know about it. 31 For he was teaching his disciples and telling them, "The Son of Man is to be delivered into the hands of men, and they will kill him; and when he has been killed, he will rise three days later." |
At a point in his public ministry when it is clear that his proclamation about the Kingdom of God has been rejected, Jesus withdraws from public view and teaches the disciples privately. Among other things, he tells them that he must be handed over to the public authorities and be executed.
2.1.11. Mark 10:1
| Arising, he went from there to the region of Judea and beyond the Jordan; crowds gathered around him again, and, according to his custom, he once more began to teach them. |
Jesus goes to Judea and the other side of the Jordan, where people gather around him and he again begins to teach them. Mark indicates that it has been his custom to do this.
2.1.12. Mark 12:35
| And Jesus began to say, as he taught in the Temple, "How is it that the scribes say that the Christ is the son of David? " |
When he is in Jerusalem for his last Passover, Jesus teaches in the Temple. Where in the Temple Jesus teaches is not stated.
2.2. Material Unique to the Gospel of Luke
2.2.1. Luke 5:1-3
| 1 Now it happened that while the crowd was pressing around him and listening to the word of God, he was standing by the lake of Gennesaret; 2 and he saw two boats lying at the edge of the lake; but the fishermen had gotten out of them and were washing their nets. 3 And he got into one of the boats, which was Simon's, and asked him to put out a little way from the land. And he sat down and began teaching the people from the boat. |
Because the people are crowding in on him while he is standing on the shore of the lake of Gennesaret—another name for the Sea of Galilee—Jesus gets into Simon's fishing boat and teaches the people while sitting in the boat.
2.2.2. Luke 6:6-7
| 6 On another Sabbath he entered the synagogue and was teaching; and there was a man there whose right hand was withered. 7 The scribes and the Pharisees were watching him closely to see if he healed on the Sabbath, so that they might find reason to accuse Him. |
Luke adds to his Markan source (Mark 3:1-6) that Jesus is teaching in a synagogue on the Sabbath when he heals a man with a withered hand and for this reason is accused of violating the Sabbath by the scribes and the Pharisees.
2.2.3. Luke 11:1
| It happened that while Jesus was praying in a certain place, after he had finished, one of his disciples said to Him, "Lord, teach us to pray just as John also taught his disciples." |
Jesus teaches his disciples to pray, in the same way that John the Baptist taught his disciples to pray.
2.2.4. Luke 13:10-11
| 10 And he was teaching in one of the synagogues on the Sabbath. 11 And there was a woman who for eighteen years had had a sickness caused by a spirit; and she was bent double, and could not straighten up at all. |
Jesus teaches in an unidentified synagogue on the Sabbath. It is on this occasion that he heals the woman who has been bent over for eighteen years because of an evil spirit, and is accused of breaking the Sabbath by the leader of the synagogue.
2.2.5. Luke 13:22
| And he was passing through from one city and town to another, teaching, and proceeding on his way to Jerusalem. |
In his Travel Narrative, Luke says that, while he is travelling to Jerusalem, Jesus stops in various cities and towns for the purpose of teaching.
2.2.6. Luke 19:47-20:1
| 19:47 And he was teaching daily in the temple; but the chief priests and the scribes and the leading men among the people were trying to destroy him, 48 and they could not find anything that they might do, for all the people were hanging on to every word he said. 20:1 On one of the days while he was teaching the people in the temple and preaching the gospel, the chief priests and the scribes with the elders confronted him. |
When he is in Jerusalem, Jesus teaches in the temple on a daily basis. Because the people who heard him were so impressed by his teaching, Jesus' opponents, "the scribes and the leading men among the people," could not do anything to him. Exactly where in the Temple Jesus teaches is not stated.
2.2.7. Luke 21:37
| Now during the day he was teaching in the temple, but at evening he would go out and spend the night on the Mount that is called Olives. |
When he is Jerusalem, Jesus is in the habit of teaching in the Temple during the day, but leaving the Temple in the evening and going to the Mount of Olives to spend the night.
2.2.8. Luke 23:4-5
| 4 Then Pilate said to the chief priests and the crowds, "I find no guilt in this man." 5 But they kept on insisting, saying, "He stirs up the people, teaching all over Judea, starting from Galilee even as far as this place." |
Before Pontius Pilate, Jesus is accused of stirring up the people with his teaching from Galilee to Jerusalem. The implication is that Jesus' teaching is subversive to Roman interest: "to stir up the people" is to incite them to rebellion against the Romans.
2.3. Material Unique to the Gospel of Matthew
2.3.1. Matt 4:23
| Jesus was going throughout all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues and proclaiming the good news of the kingdom, and healing every kind of disease and every kind of sickness among the people. |
The author of Matthew makes the general statement that Jesus travels around Galilee teaching in Jewish synagogues. In so doing he proclaims to his hearers the good news about the Kingdom.
2.3.2. Matt 5:1
| When he saw the crowds, Jesus went up on the mountain; and after he sat down, his disciples came to him. 2 He opened his mouth and began to teach them. |
As an introduction to the Sermon on the Mount, the author of Matthew says that Jesus went up on a large hill presumably in order to get away from the crowds, and there begins to teach the disciples while sitting down.
2.3.4. Matt 9:35-36
| 35 Jesus was going through all the cities and towns, teaching in their synagogues and proclaiming the good news of the kingdom, and healing every kind of disease and every kind of sickness. 36 Seeing the people, he felt compassion for them, because they were distressed and dispirited like sheep without a shepherd. |
Similar to Matt 4:23, Jesus is described as travelling abount to various cities and towns, teaching in synagogues and preaching the good news of the kingdom. He is said to feel compassion for the people whom he encounters.
2.3.5. Matt 26:55
| At that time Jesus said to the crowds, "Have you come out with swords and clubs to arrest me as you would against a robber? Every day I used to sit in the Temple teaching and you did not seize me. |
When being arrested, Jesus expresses his amazement that they come for him at night with weapons, since he has been teaching on a daily basis while sitting in the Temple. In other words, he has been publicly accessible every day. Where exactly, Jesus has been sitting while teaching in the Temple is not stated.
 |
Earring from Bethsaida During the excavations at Bethsaida, a gold earring was discovered. It was made of two pieces soldered together with a strap. The first piece is crushed, but is still identifiable as the representation of the head of an animal of some type. |
How would you describe Jesus' teaching activities?
According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus taught "the crowds" in parables; in fact, according to Mark 4:33-35 (= Matt 13:34-35), Jesus said nothing to the crowds except in parables, which is to say in figurative discourse, but he explained all things privately to his disciples. (See also Mark 7:14 = Matt 15:10 for another example of Jesus' speaking to the crowd in parables, and explaining the parable to the disciples in private.) In this context, "crowd" or "crowds" seems to mean the unrestricted general public. As a result of being taught exclusively "in parables," the crowds tended not to understand Jesus' teaching: Mark says that those in the crowds understood only as they were able, but not fully (Mark 4:33). Characteristically, the author of Matthew finds in Jesus' teaching method a pesher-type fulfillment of Ps 78:2: "I will open my mouth in parables (LXX 77:2 en parabolais); I will utter dark sayings of old" (Matt 13:35). Why Jesus adopted the method of not teaching in clear and intelligible terms to the general public but doing so only for his followers requires explanation.
| Matthew introduces the sermon on the mount by saying that when Jesus saw "the crowds" he went up into the mountain. There he sat down, his disciples came to him and he taught them (Matt 5:2). Grammatically, "them" has for its antecedent Jesus' disciples, so that Jesus did not address the crowds. (Similarly, in Luke's sermon on the plain, Jesus addresses his teaching to his disciples, although there appears to be others present [6:20].) But Matthew concludes the sermon on the mount by saying that "the crowds" were amazed at his teaching, implying that more than the disciples heard his teaching (7:28) It is possible that, although Jesus did not address them when he taught, nevertheless some from the crowds overheard his teaching and were amazed at what they heard. Or by "disciples," what he meant is not merely the twelve but a larger group of Jesus' followers, so that it would not be inappropriate to call this group "the crowds" and say that they were amazed at Jesus' teaching. (Luke recognizes that Jesus had a larger group of disciples whom he taught [6:20].) (See R. Mounce, Matthew, NIBC; 36-37; Beare, Matthew, 124-25) |
3.2. Mark 4:10-12 = Matthew 13:10-17 = Luke 8:9-10
| Mark
4:10-12 10
When he was alone, the Twelve and the others around him asked
him about the parables. 11 He told them, "The mystery of the Kingdom
of God has been given to you. But to those
on the outside everything is said in parables 12 that (hina),
"'They see indeed but never perceive, and they hear indeed but
do not understand, lest they return and be forgiven!' [Isa 6:9-10
]" |
Matthew
13:10-17 10
The disciples came to him and asked, "Why do you speak to the
people in parables?" |
Luke
8:9-10 9
His disciples asked him what this parable meant. 10 He said,
"It has been given to you to know the mysteries of the Kingdom
of God,
but to others
I
|
In Mark, after the Parable of the Sower, Jesus' disciples ask him why he speaks in parables (Matt), about the parables (Mark) or what is this parable (Luke) (see Ambrozic, The Hidden Kingdom, 46-106). In Mark (parallel to Luke), Jesus says in response: "To you have been given the mystery of the Kingdom of God; but to those on the outside everything is said in parables" (4:11). The terms "mystery" (mustêrion) and [what is said] "in parables" (en parabolais) seem to be parallel in meaning: to the disciples is disclosed secret knowledge, the "mystery of the Kingdom of God," whereas to those on the outside (ekeinoi hoi exo) this secret knowledge is not disclosed, so that what Jesus says characterized as being "in parables." Thus, in Mark 4:10-12, the term "parable" (parabolê) has a double meaning: it denotes both a type of discourse and teaching that is obscure. Beasley-Murray expresses it, "As mustêrion means "secret," so parabolê means 'enigma' or 'riddle'" (Jesus and the Kingdom of God, 105). As indicated, what is called a "parable" (parabolê) in the synoptic gospels denotes figurative discourse used as a teaching device in which a comparison is made between the Kingdom of God and another thing or event (Hultgren, The Parables of Jesus: A Commentary, 3). Parables may encompass simile, metaphor and allegory, which is exended metaphor or a series of related metaphors. (Jesus also refers to example stories, such as the Parable of the Good Samaritan, as parables, but these do not use figurative language.) Jesus' use of figurative discourse, however, is often obscure, because he intentionally does not identify for the "crowds" the respect in which the vehicle is like the tenor, how the two things being compared are analogous. (The use of the plural "mysteries" [mustêria] rather than the singular "mystery" [mustêrion] is inconsequential because the mystery no doubt consists of mysteries.) The result is that those who hear his "parables" are unclear as to Jesus' meaning, with the result that "everything is said to them in parables" or in riddles. The early rabbis often used parables in their interpretation of scripture, but, unlike Jesus, a given rabbi would explain his point in non-parabolic terms first and only then did resort to a parable as an explanatory device. The reader or hearer, in other words, already understood the point and the parable only served to illustrate it.
| Outside of Mark 4:10-12 = Matt 13:10-17 = Luke 8:9-10 and Mark 4:33-34 = Matt 13:34-35, with one exception, the term parabolê (parable) in the synoptic gospels denotes figurative discourse (Mark 3:23; Mark 4:13 = Matt 13:18 = Luke 8:11; Mark 7:17 = Matt 15:15; Mark 12:1, 12 = Matt 21:33, 45 = Luke 20:9, 19; Mark 13:28 = Matt 24:32 = Luke 21:29; Matt 22:1; Luke 4:23; 5:36; 6:39; 12:16, 41; 13:6; 15:3; 18:1, 9; 19:11). The exception is Luke 14:7, where parabolê means a proverbial or sapiential saying, i.e., good advice. The Greek term parabolê is the equivalent of the Hebrew mashal, which likewise can denote both figurative discourse and a proverbial or sapiential saying. Contrary to Jeremias, the primary meaning of mashal is not riddle or enigmatic saying (F. Hauck, "parabole" TDNT V 747-48; Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, 16; M. Black, Parables as Allegory). A parable becomes a riddle or enigmatic saying only when it is not interpreted for the hearers. |
As an explanation for why he speaks in parables to "those on the outside," Jesus cites an abbreviated and rearranged version of Isa 6:9-10. (Matthew and Luke eliminate Mark's use of the present participle before a finite form of a verb in Greek in an effort to translate the use of the infinite absolute with a finite verb in Hebrew used for the purpose of emphasis. The reason for this editorial decision is probably stylistic improvement.) (See Paul's use of Isa 6:9-10 in Acts 28:26-27.)
Mark 4:12 Because lest they return and it be forgiven them.
|
Isa 6:9-10 9a And he said,
"Go, and tell this people: |
Jesus believes that there are parallels between his calling to proclaim the Kingdom of God and Isaiah's prophetic calling. The prophet Isaiah was called to bring the word of God to the people; because they were already so resistant to God, however, the people did not discern that Isaiah was truly a prophet and then respond to his message appropriately. In so doing, they hardened themselves against the prophet and thereby confirmed God's judgment against them. In fact, this was the intended effect of Isaiah's prophetic ministry, the negative task of his prophetic calling. Similarly, Jesus veils his exoteric (or public) teaching by presenting it in parables, or as figurative discourse, because he knows that some of his hearers are resistant or indifferent to him. If they do not respond positively to the experience of hearing Jesus' parabolic teaching, then his pedagogical technique of using of parables exclusively has the effect of hardening them. (Unlike Isaiah, however, it is because of his use of parables that Jesus is not understood.) Since Jesus' parabolic discourse is obscure and difficult to grasp, his hearers will be faced with the choice to pursue understanding or to dismiss Jesus without further inquiry, and thereby be hardened in the same way that Isaiah's hearers rejected his message and were thereby hardened against him. Of course, those who are resistant to Jesus have the option of changing their pre-judgment of him and of pursuing further understanding on the newly-acquired assumption that Jesus' parabolic teaching is worth understanding. By choosing not to pursue further understanding, however, the resistant confirm themselves in their pre-judgment. In other words, rejecting Jesus' parabolic teaching as not worth understanding is a manifestation of persistent obduracy and results in bringing judgment upon oneself. Although he proclaims publicly that the Kingdom of God has drawn near, Jesus wants to avoid the presentation in plain, non-parabolic terms of the details of his conception of the Kingdom of God, in order that those who are unreceptive to it will not understand it immediately. His purpose is that the hearer make a prior decision about him, before he is willing to disclose to them details about the Kingdom of God.
| The use of the conjunction (hina) ("in order that") in Mark 4:12 to introduce the allusion to Isa 6:9-10 is often interpreted to mean that, according to Mark, the purpose of Jesus' speaking to the crowds exclusively using figurative or metaphorical discourse ("in parables") without interpreting it is in order that "They might be ever seeing but never perceiving, and ever hearing and never understanding, lest they might turn and be forgiven." In other words, Jesus teaches in parables in order that his hearers might not understand, which then makes repentance and forgiveness an impossibility for them. It seems, however, the conjunction hina is probably an abbreviated form of "in order that it might be fulfilled" (hina plêrôthê) (Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, 17). If so, then Jesus understands his teaching in parables and the result as salvation-historically parallel to Isaiah's prophetic ministry, so that the latter is predictive of the former in a pesher-like manner. Matthew changes his Markan source by substituting hoti ("because") for hina ("in order that") and correspondingly changes Mark's subjunctives to indicatives. (Luke retains Mark's hina.) Thus, Matthew could be interpreted to mean that Jesus speaks in parables because his hearers are already spiritually obtuse, not in order to put them in that condition. Jesus does not make them that way, but finds them that way; he presents to them an opportunity whereby they can move from being resistant to him to being open to him. Matthew's change of Mark's hina to hoti was source was probably motivated by a desire to avoid the misunderstanding of Jesus as a teacher who taught in order not to be understood. But this is probably not the best interpretation of Matthew's intention. As with Mark, Matthew seems to mean that Jesus' use of parables and its effect fulfils prophecy: "because it has been prophesied..." Indeed, in Matt 13:14-15, Matthew quotes Isa 6:9-10 in its entirety from the LXX as explicitly fulfilled, presumably in case his readers do not recognize the allusion to the Old Testament passage in the Markan version. It should also be noted that Mark's use of hina should not necessarily be interpreted as having a telic (purposive) sense anyway. He may intend a much looser meaning with no implication of purpose, so that it is synonymous with Matthew's hoti ("because" or "that"). Evidence for this is the use hina in Mark 9:12 without the sense of purpose: "Why is it written that (hina) the son of man must suffer and be rejected?" Also, the conjunction hina is sometimes used to introduce a result clause (BAG s.v. II 2). |
The final clause in Mark's citation of Isa 6:9-10, "Lest they return and be forgiven" should not be interpreted as implying that Jesus did not want his resistant hearers to return and be forgiven. Rather, it is included because it is part of the citation. In its context in Isa 6, the point being made is that God had already consigned the Israelites to judgment and he intended to use the prophet as the means by which that judgment was to be confirmed, but this is not Jesus' meaning. Luke realizes this, for he excludes the clause from his Markan source. (Jeremias argues that the conjunction "lest" (mêpote) is a translation of the Aramaic "dilema", which in some contexts can mean"unless." If so, Jesus would mean that the mystery of the Kingdom of the God shall be revealed to those on the outside if they repent and receive forgiveness [The Parables of Jesus, 17].)
| Manson argues convincingly that underlying the Markan version of Isa 6:9-10 is the Aramaic Targum. First, unlike the Hebrew and the LXX, the Targum, in agreement with Mark, has "And it be forgiven them" (wyshtbyq lhwn; kai aphethê autois) rather than "And I heal them" (wrp' lw; kai iasomai autous). Second, the Targum agrees with Mark in using the third person ("They hear and do not understand and they see and do not know") rather than the second person, as is found in MT and the LXX (Manson, The Teaching of Jesus, 76-80; Chilton, A Galilean Rabbi and His Bible, 90-98). Manson also argues that Mark mistranslated the original Aramaic: rather than translating the Aramaic de as a relative pronoun (rendered in Greek as hoi), he translated it as a conjunction introducing a purpose clause (rendered in Greek as hina). Thus, what Jesus actually said was: "To you is given the secret of the Kingdom of God; but all things come in parables to those outside who (emphasis added) see indeed but do not know and hear indeed but do not understand lest they should repent and receive forgiveness" (78). In other words, Jesus is not saying that he uses uninterpreted figurative discourse for the purpose of concealing the mystery of the Kingdom of God from those who are on the outside, but that he is merely reproaching his hearers for their resistance to his teaching, citing Isa 6:9-10 as an illustration of the spiritual state of his own hearers. As insightful as Manson's explanation is, it seems unlikely that such a translated error would have been made and would have remained uncorrected. |
The mystery of the Kingdom of God is reserved for those who pursue understanding on the assumption that Jesus is saying something worth understanding. Jesus says to the disciples and those around him that to them—those who have pursued understanding—has been given "the mystery (Mk) / mysteries (Matt / Luke) of the Kingdom of God." The term mystery (mustêrion) denotes in this context the hidden eschatological purposes of God, being the equivalent of the Hebrew raz. The use of the passive "it has been given to you" (hoti humin dedotai) is a divine passive, so that the implied subject is God; Jesus is really saying that God has responded to their further inquiry by giving them knowledge of the mystery of the Kingdom of God.
The Hebrew term raz is used to mean God's eschatological purposes in the Book of Daniel (2:18, 19, 27-28, 30, 47). King Nebuchadnezzar confesses to Daniel, "Surely your God is a God of gods and a Lord of kings and a revealer of mysteries, since you have been able to reveal this mystery" (2:47). The term mustêrion is also found in Wisdom of Solomon, where it has the same meaning (2:22). In the Thanksgiving Hymns, the founder describes himself as chosen by God to receive "mysteries" (razim) (10.13; 12.27; 13.25). His calling was to serve as a source of enlightenment for all who would heed his words. These mysteries revealed to the founder concerned God's eschatological purposes and the community's role in these. He says, "Through me you have enlightened the face of the many and you have shown your power without limit, because you have made known to me your wonderful mysteries and through your marvelous counsel you have strengthened my standing" (1QH-a 12.27-28). (Part of the hidden knowledge revealed to the founder was the ways in which the Israelites had erred, which implies that to him was revealed the proper interpretation of the Torah [1QS 5.11-12]). Other references to receiving divine mysteries occurs in 1QH-a 15.26-27 "You have made me know your wonderful mysteries"; 19.20 "And you have instructed them in your wonderful mysteries"; 20.11-13 "You have opened within me knowledge of the mystery of your wisdom"; and 20.20 "understand all your mysteries." Finally, the knowledge possessed by the men of the community is called "mysteries of wonder and truth" (1QS 9.18-19). In
the Similitudes of Enoch, the secrets of the eschatological figure
of the son of man is revealed to Enoch (46.2-8); such knowledge
is concealed from the rest of humanity. Similarly, in 1
Enoch 103:2, Enoch discloses the mystery that was revealed
to him by reading esoteric writings, "the tablets of heaven"
and "the books of the holy ones": that there will be
a final judgment in which retributive justice shall be meted out
to the righteous and sinner (see also 1 Enoch 81-82;
93:2; 104:10-12; 106:19). Although most of it is practical and
this-worldly, the wisdom teaching of 4QInstruction (4Q416,
417, 418) is qualified by an eschatological outlook. The wise
understands that human history will culminate with the final judgment
when the righteous will be vindicated against the wicked. The
teaching concerning eschatological judgment and how one ought
to live in light of this ultimate fact is described idiomatically
"the mystery of what is to come" (rz nhyh) (4Q416
frg. 2, 3.9-10, 14-15, 18, 20-21; 4Q417 frg. 1, 1.10-12; frg.
2, 1.6, 8-9, 18-21). Presumably, this teaching is a mystery because
it is not widely known (or at least believed); the righteous
or the wise are characterized as those who understand this mystery. |
In Mark 4:11, the phrase "the mystery of the Kingdom of God" should be interpreted as a genitive of apposition: "Mystery consisting of [a knowledge] of the Kingdom of God." Jesus is saying that to those who pursue understanding will be revealed the details of the Kingdom of God, Israel's eschatological salvation, which is in the process of breaking into history. Such a knowledge hitherto has been concealed from human beings and even now is still a mystery, being revealed only selectively.
| Matthew
interpolates into his Markan source a Markan saying that occurs
in Mark 4:25 = Luke 8:18b or a non-Markan version of the same saying:
"Whoever has will be given more, and he will have an abundance.
Whoever does not have, even what he has will be taken from him"
(Matt 13:12). Matthew considers that this saying explicates
Jesus' explanation of why he teaches in parables to those on the
outside. According to this saying, God gives to those who
already have and takes away from those who do not have what little
they do have. The principle of divine giving expressed therein is
that God gives both abundantly and selectively, insofar as He gives
only to those who meet the condition of receiving. Thus to
those who respond by inquiring further God gives the "mystery of
the Kingdom of God." Those who harden themselves and are no longer
in a state of spiritual neutrality find themselves rejected by God,
losing whatever spiritual merit they had. Matthew also appends to his Markan source a double tradition saying (Matt 13:16-17 = Luke 10:23b-24) that he considers to be relevant to the context: "But blessed are your eyes because they see, and your ears because they hear. For I tell you the truth, many prophets and righteous men longed to see what you see but did not see it, and to hear what you hear but did not hear it." (In the Lukan context, this saying is conjoined with another double tradition, Luke 10:21-22 = Matt 11:25-27; Jesus addresses the seventy-two his disciples upon their return.) In this saying, Jesus says that the disciples are "blessed," because they have seen and heard things that prophets and kings had desired to see and hear but were denied. The point is that God's salvific purposes have not disclosed indiscriminately; in particular, in spite of the collective prophetic voice foretelling the coming eschaton, still much remains unknown concerning the details of this eschatological salvation. Only at the appointed time will God reveal these details (see Ps. Sol. 17.50; 18.7 for parallels to Jesus' saying of the blessed of those who witness the dawn of eschatological salvation). Clearly, Matthew applies this originally-isolated saying to the disclosure of the "mystery of the Kingdom of God," which has been given to the disciples and others (see Catchpole, The Quest for Q, 54-55). (Luke applies the saying to a different situation; this saying of Jesus, being general, has more than one application, as multiple applications.) This mystery has been revealed at the appointed time and, moreover, only to those who meet the criterion of being open to inquire further. (See Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Kingdom of God, 84-85; Manson, The Sayings of Jesus, 80-81.) The number of minor agreements between Matthew and Luke against Mark suggests that Matthew and Luke had access to another version of this Markan tradition (see Schramm, Der Markus-Stoff bei Lukas, 115-16). They agree in having hoti humin dedotai gnônai ta mustêria tês baileias tou theou (Matt: ouranôn) ("It has been given to you to know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God [Heaven]) rather than Mark's humin to mustêrion dedotai tês baileias tou theou ("The mystery of the Kingdom of God is given to you.") Matthew and Luke agree in having blepontes ou / mê blepôsin ("Though seeing, they do / may not see"), rather than Mark's longer and more Semitic blepontes blepôsin kai mê idôsin (Lit. "Seeing they see and do not perceive"). Matthew and Luke have the negative agreement of excluding the clause "lest they return be forgiven." It is possible that the two additional sayings found in Matthew (13:12, 16-17) were already present in this hypothetical second source. |
 |
Temple Warning Sign One complete and two fragmentary copies (all in Greek) of the warning to gentiles to proceed no further have been discovered. The inscription translates as follows: "No foreigner is to enter within the balustrade and embankment around the sanctuary. Whoever is caught will have himself to blame for his death which follows." Both Greek (above) and Latin versions of this warning were posted at regular intervals around the soreg (balustrade). |
Some scholars consider that Mark 4:11-12 is an interpolation into the original unity of Mark 4:10, 13-20, since Jesus' answer in 4:11 does not agree with the question asked in 4:10, whereas the answer given in 4:13 does agree (see Grundmann, Markus, 121-27). If so, then Mark interpolates this saying by means of the link-word "parable" (parabolê [Mark 4:10]; en parabolais [Mark 4:11]. This is possible, but its admission does not affect the historicity of Mark 4:10-12. There are those, however, who reject the historical authenticity of Mark 4:10-12, proposing different explanations for its origin; such scholars usually claim that Jesus taught in parables in order to be understood; they functioned as illustrations of Jesus' teaching. The classic statement of this view that of Jülicher, who holds that Jesus' parables as making self-evident comparisons that did not require interpretation and Jesus did not use allegories with obscure meanings (Die Gleichnisse Jesus 1.65-85 On this interpretation of Jesus' use of parables, Mark 4:11-12 cannot possibly be historical. W. Wrede claims that Mark 4:10-12 is part of the "Messianic Secret," (Das Messiasgeheimnis, 1901; ET The Messianic Secret). Wrede claims that speaking in parables is one way in which the Markan Jesus tries to keep his true identity secret: he speaks in "parables" to the crowds and gives private instruction to his disciples, to which are given the "mystery of the Kingdom of God" (4:1-12, 33-34). But this is nothing more than a device to explain why Jesus was not known to have claimed to be the Messiah. Weeden also claims that Mark 4:11-12, 14-20, 34 (and 4:3-9, 30-32, 33) are pre-Markan traditions reflecting the theios-aner theology of Mark’s opponents (Traditions in Conflict). Esoteric knowledge is granted to the narrow circle of the elect. Mark includes this material in his gospel actually to undermine this theological perspective. Carlston interprets Mark 4:33 as standing in contradiction to 4:11-12, 34 because allegedly the former claims that the hearers of Jesus’ parables understood them without any trouble (The Parables of the Triple Tradition, 97-109). He claims that “Mark has imposed a theory of obscurity (v. 34) on a theory of clarity (v. 33) (99). In fact the opposite seems to be the case, because, even without 4:34, 4:33 implies that the hearers did not have complete understanding, which is consistent with the fact that Jesus explains their meanings to the disciples privately (4:34). He determines that Mark 4:11-12 originally had no connection to parables, but the Markan author brought it in relation to Jesus’ parables. The phrase “in parables” originally meant enigmatically or in riddles and described some aspect of Jesus’ ministry, but not his parabolic discourse. Evidence of the Markan redaction connection of 4:11-12 to its larger context is the fact that the question in 4:10 is answered twice, once in 4:11 and the other in 4:13. Carlston also asserts that “the mystery of the Kingdom of God” is not originally esoteric teaching given only to the disciples, which is a Markan creation, but in the pre-Markan tradition a knowledge originating in revelation. He determines that the “hardening theory” of 4:12 (hina) is pre-Markan, but does not go back to the historical Jesus. Chilton likewise gives an unconvincing refutation of the authenticity of Mark 4:11-12 as an explanation for Jesus' use of parables. He argues that the saying in 4:11 originates with the early Jerusalem church as an explanation for its failure in its missionary endeavor. Mark 4:12 derives from Jesus, however, and is intended as a rebuke to his slow-to-understand hearers (Galilean Rabbi, 90-98). He writes, "Mark, then, incorporated 4:11, 12 and developed from these verses and the parabolic material collected in chapter four a view of parables under which they could be partially understood by anyone (4:33), but were fully set out by the disciples (4:34)" (96). J. Becker also rejects Mark 4:10-12 as authentic, a Markan creation; he takes the opposite view that Jesus intends parables to present hearers with the Kingdom of God (Jesus of Nazareth, 141-50). He writes, “With his parables he established the reality of the Kingdom of God in the reality of the reality of the world of human experience in the narrative” (143). Along the same lines, H. Weder relegates Mark 4:10-12 to the second stage of development in the early church (“zweite Gemeindestufe”) (Die Gleichnisse Jesu als Metapheren, 102-3, 113-14). The reason for its inclusion is to explain the fact that people did not believe the good news: “Die verkündigung der Gemeinde erfährt der Draussenstehende durchwegs als Rätselrede; die Verstock der Umwelt ist das Werk Gottes selbst” (114). Rejecting the authenticity of Mark 4:10-12 allows H. Braun to assert that Jesus gave no esoteric instruction; in Braun's estimation, the idea of a hidden, secret teaching is unhistorical (Spätjüdisch-häretischer und frühchristlicher Radikalismus, II, 18-23). Braun contrasts Jesus with the Qumran community, which did have esoteric eschatological teaching into which its members were initiated upon entering the community (see 1QS 1.9; 5.9; 8.1, 15-16; 9.13, 19; 1QpHab 2.7-10; 7.1-5). Maria Horstmann agrees that Mark 4:11-12 originates with the evangelist, along with 4:33, (Studien zur markinischen Christologie, 113-18). Kelber argues that 4:11-12 is a redactional insert for the purpose of expressing the idea that the Kingdom is hidden in the present (The Kingdom in Mark, 25-43). Klauck holds that only 4:12 is Markan redaction, whereas 4:11 is tradition in which Jesus’ use of parables is interpreted in light of apocalyptic esoteric teaching (Allegorie und Allegorese in synoptischen Gleichnistexten, 242-56). Mark connects this with a hardening theory: V. 12 rückt die apokalyptische Parabeltheorie in die prophetische Perspecktive der Verstockung, die sich an den Gegern Jesus vollzieht” (258). It seems more probable, given the Jewish practice of esoteric teaching, leading to the differentiation of audiences, to assume, as Mark 4:10-12 indicates, that Jesus had an esoteric and exoteric teaching (see B. Meyer, The Aims of Jesus, chap. 8; G. R. Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Kingdom of God, 103-107). |
3.3.
Mark 4:33-34 = Matt 13:34-35
| Mark
4 33
With many similar parables Jesus spoke the word to them, as much
as they could understand. 34 He did not say anything to them without
using a parable. But when he was alone with his own disciples,
he explained everything. |
Matthew
13 34 Jesus spoke all these things to the crowd in parables; he did not say anything to them without using a parable. 35 So was fulfilled what was spoken through the prophet: "I will open my mouth in parables, I will utter things hidden since the creation of the world." [Psalm 78:2] |
Mark concludes his parable chapter with the reiteration of Jesus' pedagogical method: Jesus spoke only in parables to the crowds, but in private interpreted his figurative discourse for the benefit of his disciples. Mark also observes that Jesus' method had the desired effect, for the crowds only understood in part. (For evidence of an esoteric teaching in second-Temple Judaism, see 4 Ezra 14.45; War 2.141; 1QS 9.17; 10.24-25; Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus, 237-42; id., The Eucharistic Words of Jesus, 125-30). In Matthew's version, Jesus' use of parables is said to fulfill Ps 78:2. This is another example of Matthew's tendency to find Old Testament predictions of Jesus' life and ministry. This is a pesher-type of interpretation: an eschatological meaning is attributed to an Old Testament passage that originally did not have such an eschatological reference. In Ps 78:2, the original speaker is not the Messiah, but becomes the Messiah in its interpretation in Matt 13:35.
Jesus' saying "Do not give what is holy to dogs, and do not throw your pearls before swine, or they will trample them under their feet, and turn and tear you to pieces" (Matt 7:6) is another expression of Jesus' pedagogical method of teaching according to his audience. He was unwilling to teach about the Kingdom of God—what is holy and as comparable to a pearl in terms of its value—to those who are spiritually unworthy and unprepared to hear this message. Such people are described metaphorically as dogs and pigs, both of which were viewed negatively by Jews. Such hearers would reject the message of the Kingdom and even ridicule and abuse Jesus; in so doing they would bring judgment upon themselves, so that it is better that they never be given the opportunity to hear Jesus' teaching.
What is a parable as Jesus uses the term? Why does Jesus teach exclusively in parables to those "on the outside"?
Ahead to: The Kingdom of God as Present
