Jews in the second-Temple period thought eschatologically about their nation in national and historical terms. With the exception of the Sadducees, they also thought eschatologically about the individal in personal and eternal terms. In others words, they had a soteriology. In second-Temple Judaism, God is depicted as both a righteous judge and as merciful.(1) This means that God is depicted as both judging human beings and Jews in particular in accordance with their deeds and as mercifully removing the guilt of those who have transgressed the Law. (The tension is found in the Torah itself, for God is described formulaically as both merciful and as a righteous judge.)(2) These two depictions of how God relates to human beings are in obvious tension with each other.(3) As a result, Jews of the second-Temple period formulated a soteriology that was a compromise between the opposing depictions of God as righteous judge and as merciful. As such it could be described as a synergistic soteriology. On the one hand, they believed that obedience to the Law was required in order to be qualified for eschatological salvation. God as righteous judge would pronounce a Jew to be deserving of receiving eschatological salvation (however this was conceived) on the basis of his obedience to the Law. It is clear that the purpose of the Law was the means by which a Jew gained eschatological life through obedience to it, which is consistent with Lev 18:5: “So you shall keep my statutes and my ordinances, by which a man may live if he does them; I am the Yahweh.”(4) (See also Deut 4:1; 5:33; 6:24-25; 8:1; 11:26-28; 28:1-14; 30:15-20.) (Not all Jews of the second-Temple period, however, believed in a post-mortem existence, even if they believed in eschatological salvation.)(5) For this reason, sinners would be denied any eschatological benefit. On the other hand, Jews of the second-Temple period also believed that perfect obedience to the Law was not required as a condition of obtaining eschatological salvation. Eschatological salvation became possible for those Jews who had not been perfectly obedient, because, on the condition of repentance, God as merciful would remove the guilt of those who transgressed the commandments. (To repent is to turn from disobedience to obedience to the Law.) Because they repented, God would remove the guilt resulting from their sins, even those that were liable to extirpation according to the conditions set out in the Torah. Their repentance qualified them for the mercy of God. The result is that no Jew needed to be excluded from eschatological salvation because of his disobedience to the Law.

In the second-Temple period, Jews were divided into two classes, the unrighteous and the righteous. (One could identify the perfect as a third class of Jew. They are defined as those who have never violated the Law. For all intents and purposes, however, this third class is a purely theoretical construct since so few in history could be so classified.) The unrighteous are those Jews who violate the Law, do not repent of those sins, and for these reasons have no hope of eschatological salvation. The righteous, contrary to what one might expect, are not perfectly obedient, but, like the unrighteous, also disobey the commandments. They differ from the unrighteous, however, insofar as they sincerely seek to obey the Law and have to their credit a certain amount of habitual righteousness, even if they are not perfectly obedient. In addition, the righteous repent of their transgressions and receive thereby the removal of the guilt resulting from these transgressions. Imperfect obedience to the Law in combination with acquiring the removal of guilt resulting from violations of the Law will result in being declared “righteous” (or more accurately, “righteous enough”) at the final judgment. Obedience to the Law was what a righteous Jew contributed towards the obtaining of eschatological salvation. Thus, any “righteous” Jew who is judged as deserving of eschatological salvation could legitimately claim, in part, at least, to have earned his salvation insofar as he has done what was required by God as a condition of that salvation.(6) Yet the righteous Jew is also soteriologically dependent upon the mercy of God, for he has still fallen short of perfect obedience to the Law. The removal of guilt was God’s contribution to the soteriological process. This synergistic soteriology is found in both non-sectarian texts from the second-Temple period and in Qumran sectarian texts, so that one could conclude that it was foundational to second-Temple Judaism.

1.1. God as Righteous Judge and Rewarder of the Righteous

1.1.1. Non-Sectarian Texts

There exist a number of texts that seem to have had a more general circulation among Jews of the second-Temple period, in contrast to the sectarian literature from Qumran, which probably circulated only within Essene circles. On the assumption that these texts taken together reflect views generally held in the second-Temple, it is clear that Jews of this time believed that God would reward a Jew eschatologically for his obedience to the Law. God as righteous judge would pronounce a Jew to be deserving of receiving eschatological salvation on the basis his obedience to the Law. Such obedience is what a Jew contributes to achieving the goal of eschatological salvation.

A. Eschatological Reward of the Righteous

In many of non-sectarian sources from the second-Temple period, it is said that God’s judgment will come eschatologically, at which time all Jews or human beings generally will be required to give a complete and final account of themselves. In contrast to the wicked, the righteous on the day of judgment will be rewarded with some type of renewed life, expressed in different and sometimes ambiguous ways in the sources. In 1 En 1–5, those who have nothing to fear at the great judgment are the “righteous elect” (1:1), a group referred to singly as “the righteous” and “the elect” in 1 En 1:8.(7) The use of the term “righteous” implies that the members of this group are obedient to the Law. The use of the designation “elect,” on the other hand, implies that, insofar as its members are obedient to the Law, this group represents the true Israel, since Israel is called God’s elect. Although its members still must submit to final judgment, this group is assured of a positive outcome: “But with the righteous (dikaios = qšyt) he will make peace, and he will protect the elect (eklektos = bchyr) and have mercy upon them (1 En 1:8; see 5:4). In this context, to say that God will make peace (tên eirêhê poiêsei) with the righteous does not imply former hostility, but is a soteriological expression, meaning that God will eschatologically bless or reward them. (“Peace” is used as an expression for eschatological salvation in Jub. 23:27–31.) To make peace with the righteous is synonymous with having mercy on them and protecting them from divine wrath at the time of final judgment.(8) The influence of the Aaronic blessing (Num 6:24–26) is evident on this description of the eschatological blessing of the righteous in 1 En 1:8.(9) The implication is that God will eschatologically bless the righteous in Israel, true members of the covenant, in the same way that he blessed all Israel in the past. The destiny of this group is further described in 1 En 5:7: “But to the elect there will be light, joy and peace, and they shall inherit the earth.”(10) To receive light, joy and peace is to be the recipient of eschatological salvation; in addition, the elect shall inherit an earth free of wickedness. (Other references to righteous and elect as designating a single group are found mostly in the Similitudes of Enoch (1 En 38:3, 4; 39:6, 7; 48:1; 58:1, 2; 61:13; 62:12, 13, 15; 70:3). This state of eschatological blessedness is also called “salvation” (sôtêria), to which sinners will be denied access (1 En 5:6) (see the use of the verb in 1 En 1:1). The righteous will live out the full number of their days in a state of eschatological blessedness (1 En 1:9; see 10:17; 25:6; Jub. 23:25–29). Later it is said that the righteous will escape eschatological judgment, and will live “in peace” (bšlm), meaning in a state of eschatological blessedness consisting of long life and prosperity (1 En 10:17–19) (4QEn-c frg. 1, col. 5.5). Drawing upon Ps 85:11, the author also says that “peace and truth” shall be united together, which is another way of speaking about the historical realization of eschatological salvation (1 En 11:2).

4QBeatitudes (4Q525) describes the eschatological reward of the righteous, those who are wise and obey the Law.(11) To them it is promised that “He [God] will cause you to inherit and fill your days with goodness, and in abundant peace you will w[alk]. You will inherit glory” (4Q525 frg. 14, col. 2.13–14a). What seems to be described is both a this-worldly blessedness of the righteous as well as their eschatological salvation, which is what “to inherit glory” probably means.(12) Evidence for this interpretation is the use of the same idiom in 4QInstruction with an eschatological meaning (4Q416 frg. 2, col. 1.6 = 4Q417 frg. 2, col. 1.11).(13) Probably, to walk in abundant peace is also an eschatological reference, since “abundant peace” is used to describe eschatological salvation in 1QS 4.7.(14) (For another occurrence of the phrase “abundant peace,” see frg. 4Q416 frg. 11.1) Following this is a conditional clause: “If you pass away to your eternal rest.” This seems to be another way of describing the eternal hope of the righteous. The righteous will inherit glory and walk in peace insofar as they pass away to their eternal rest.

In the second discourse on eschatological judgment found in 4QInstruction (4Q418 frg. 69, col. 2.4–15), the righteous are said to be destined for eschatological reward. In this text, the righteous are called “seekers of truth” (2.7) and “chosen of truth” (bchyry 'mt) (2.10). In this context, to seek the truth is to pursue obedience to God wholeheartedly. To be “chosen of truth” may denote this group’s self-understanding as God’s elect, so that in this instance “truth” functions as a circumlocution for God.(15) The eschatological destiny of this group is the “inheritance of eternal life” (2.13) (see Dan 12:2; 1QS 4.7–8; CD 3.20). It seems that those who belong to this group are in danger of losing hope in God’s retributive justice, for the sage encourages them to imitate the angels in persevering in doing their “deeds of truth” (p'lwt 'mt) (2.11–15) (see 1 En 103:9, 11). To perform “deeds of truth,” no doubt, is to be obedient to the Law. Such a view presupposes that, until the day of judgment, there may be an inversion of the moral order, to which the righteous must respond with faith and patience.

For the author of the Book of Jubilees, the eschatological hope of the righteous in Israel, those who have been faithful to obey the Law, is existence on a renewed earth after final judgment (Jub. 1:29). God will rebuild the Temple in Israel and dwell in their midst (Jub. 1:17; 4:26). The righteous will live long, satisfying lives without the malevolent interference of evil spirits (Jub. 23:27–29).

In Psalms of Solomon, the righteous are described as those who “remember the Lord at all times” (Ps. Sol. 3:3a), “fear the Lord” (Ps. Sol. 4:23; see 6:5), are “ready to call on the name of the Lord” (Ps. Sol. 6:1; see 9:6), “bless the name of the Lord” (Ps. Sol. 6:4), “hope in him” (Ps. Sol. 6:6) and “love him in truth” (Ps. Sol. 6:6; 14:1). The author of Ps. Sol. 14 states that a person is judged according to whether he "walks in the righteousness of his commandments" (en dikaiosunê tôn prostagnatôn), which were given for the purpose of life (14:2–3). The Law is the means of (eternal) life, because those who make themselves righteous by doing the Law are judged to be deserving of life: “The devout of the Lord shall live by it forever.” This clearly alludes to the promise in Lev 18:5 that a person is judged worthy of life because of his obedience to the Law.(16)

Fittingly, at the time of final judgment, the righteous, those who have obeyed the Law, are said to be destined to receive eternal life.(17) Several passages bear on this. In Ps. Sol. 2:31, the author speaks of God’s raising him up to glory. To say that God will “raise up” (anistôn) the righteous probably implies some form of bodily resurrection and renewed corporeal existence. In another psalm, the author explains that there will come a time when God will “look upon” the righteous, by which is meant that he will be merciful to them and vindicate them in judgment (Ps. Sol. 3:11–12). The ones who fear the Lord “will be raised up to eternal life” (Ps. Sol. 3:12), which is probably an allusion to Dan 12:2 (see 2 Macc 7:9). If so, then it is probable that the resultant state of being raised up is understood as a renewed corporeal existence on the earth. The eschatological life to be received by the righteous is described as never-ending and as being “in the light of the Lord,” a probable allusion to Isa 60:19–20 (Ps. Sol. 3:12b).(18) These further descriptions of the eschatological existence of the righteous, however, do not clarify the type of existence that this will be. In contrast to the wicked, it is said that the righteous “will inherit life in joy” (Ps. Sol. 14:10; see 12:6). Again, the exact nature of the life that the righteous will inherit is left unspecified. Finally, in Ps. Sol. 13:11, it is said that “the life of the righteous is forever,” by which is meant the eschatological life that the righteous will receive.

In Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, the criterion of all judgment—including eschatological judgment—is the “eternal Law” (lex sempiternus). Those who do not know the Law will not be excused thereby. This is because they could have known the Law, but made no effort to learn it (LAB 11:1–2). Eschatological judgment will be "according to works and according to the fruits of his own devices" (LAB 3:10). According to the author of this text, after final judgment, the righteous are destined to receive eternal life: “But also in the end the lot of each one of you will be eternal life (vita eternal), for you and your seed” (LAB 23:13). This life is a result of obedience to the Law, which God to the nation for this very purpose: "in order that by doing these things they would live," which is a possible allusion to Lev 18:5 (23:10).(19) God will create another earth (alia terra), where presumably, the righteous will dwell forever in some form of renewed corporeal existence (LAB 3:10; 16:3; 32:17). In LAB 19:12–13, God promises to Moses, just before his death, that he will raise him up to dwell in “the immortal habitation that is not subject to time” (habitationem immortalem, que non tenetur in tempore); probably this is a reference to the other earth that God will create (LAB 3:10). Pre-eschatologically, the disembodied souls of the righteous are stored in peace until “the time allotted to the world is complete” (LAB 23:13; see 19:12–13; 28:10; 51:5). In this state, it seems that the righteous proleptically receive the reward of their good deeds, for Samuel complained thus to the witch of Endor when she raised him up: “I thought that the time to receive my reward for my works had arrived” (LAB 64:7).

In 4 Ezra, the righteous are destined to enter the place of rest, also called the paradise of delight (4 Ezra 7:26–44; see 9:17–22). Although the exact nature of this eschatological existence is not clear, the hope of the righteous could be a type of corporeal existence on a renewed and incorruptible earth (4 Ezra 7:113–14; 8:52–54).(20) It should be noted, however, that Ezra affirms that all human beings, including the righteous presumably, have sinned: “For in truth there is no one among those who have been born who has not acted wickedly, and among those who have existed there is no one who has not transgressed” (4 Ezra 8:35). On the assumption of literary consistency, this means that the righteous are not perfect but only habitually obedient. Nevertheless, they have enough of a “store of good works” for which they will be rewarded with eschatological salvation (4 Ezra 8:36; see 7:77; 8:33).

According to 2 Baruch, the Law is a source of life to those who obey it: “Your Law is life” (2 Bar 38:2). Baruch tells the people that they should “prepare your minds to sow in them the fruits of the Law,” which will result in being protected from eschatological wrath, the shaking of the entire creation (2 Bar 32:1). The exhortation is to choose to obey the Law and thereby become qualified for eschatological salvation (see 2 Bar 44:6; 45:2; 46:3; 48:24).(21) Not surprisingly, the righteous are said to have a store of good works preserved in treasuries (2 Bar 14:12–13; 24:1); these good works, resulting from obedience to the commandments of the Law, will commend them at the final judgment. The merit of the righteous is also attributed to their faith, which is assumed to issue in obedience to the Law, for in 2 Bar 54:21 wickedness is set in antithetical parallelism with faith (see 2 Bar 42:1; 54:4–5, 16, 20–22).(22) Earlier in 2 Baruch, Baruch wonders plaintively whether there is enough time for a human being “to inherit that which is immeasurable” (2 Bar 16:1). In other words, he wonders whether becoming qualified for eschatological salvation requires a minimum number of years that is out of reach for most human beings. God sets aside this objection by pointing to Moses, who “subjected himself” to God in his meager 120 years as compared to Adam’s profitless 999 years (2 Bar 17). The point is that length of years makes no difference in attaining eschatological reward. What matters is obedience to the Law in however many years that a person has been allotted.

Because of their habitual obedience, righteous Jews are destined to be rewarded eschatologically.(23) Baruch says of God that he is “the one who reveals to those who fear that which is prepared for them so that you may comfort them” (2 Bar 54:4–5). This describes the righteous who fear God and so are obedient to the Law. The righteous within the nation are promised “reward” (2 Bar 59:2) and “a crown with great glory” (2 Bar 15:7–8); they are said to have “blessedness” (2 Bar 48:48–50) and to be in line “to inherit that which is immeasurable” (2 Bar 16:1). In 2 Bar 44:7–13, Baruch tells the people that those Jews who continue to obey the Law will participate in “the consolation of Zion.” This refers not to the historical restoration to the land but to the eschaton, when all that is corruptible will pass away: “For there is a time that does not pass away. And that period is coming which will remain forever, and there is a new world which does not carry back to corruption those who enter into its beginning” (see 2 Bar 30:1–5; 51).(24) This group even includes proselytes, who are described as having “fled under your [God’s] wings” (2 Bar 41:4; see Pss 36:8; 57:2; Ruth 2:12).

In 2 Bar 15:8, this life is said to be a struggle for the purpose of obtaining eternal life.(25) At present, justice is denied to the righteous, but this will not always be the case. In order for him to be just, God must provide another context in which to give the righteous their due; thus, the promise of recompense in the next age is held out to the righteous who unjustly suffer for whatever reason in this age. The man who obeys the Law may pine away in this world (see 2 Bar 15:8), but he will receive happiness in the next age that will more than compensate him for his previous condition: “And further when a man is badly treated in his youth but will be happy in the end, he does not remember his disgrace anymore” (2 Bar 19:7; see 30:1–2; 48:50; 51; 73–74).(26)

B. Reward of the Righteous Dead

Not only the righteous who happen to be alive at the time of the eschaton will be rewarded for their obedience to the Law, but also the righteous who have died. In the Book of Watchers, one of the four “pits” or repositories of the dead that Enoch sees is said to contain the spirits of the righteous dead (1 En 22:9). Their existence in this pit is made pleasant by the presence of a spring, and it alone of the four “pits” is described as bright (phôteinos), in contrast to the other three, which are said to be dark (skoteinos) (see 1 En 36:10 [9]).(27) Thus, the righteous and the sinners in their post-mortem states are separated from each other even before the day of judgment; in a sense, the different conditions in which the two different types of spirits must dwell represents a proleptic judgment. The righteous wait in comfort for the day on which they will be not be punished, whereas the sinners are already tormented. It seems that the final destiny of the righteous is to be awakened (1 En 22:13). To be awakened is probably an allusion to Dan 12:2 and is “der Ermöglichung einer Teilnahme am Leben der Heilszeit auch für die vor dem ‘Ende’ verstorbenen Gerechten” (see Isa 26:19; 2 Macc 7).(28) (Dan 12:2, however, seems to describe a two-fold awakening of the righteous and the wicked.) How this renewed life differs from the post-mortem existence of the righteous in the pit is not explained; presumably, it is a type of renewed corporeal existence on earth.(29)

Likewise, in the Epistle of Enoch, it is affirmed numerous times that the righteous who have died, unlike the wicked who oppressed them, will be granted renewed life, expressed as being “awakened from their sleep” (1 En 92:3) (see Dan 12:2).(30) This probably refers to a type of renewed corporeal existence.(31) (Whether the use of the term “to be awakened” implies that the disembodied righteous were unconscious from the time of their death until the eschaton is not clear, but improbable, at least in light of 1 En 22.) After being awakened, the righteous will live in “eternal light” (1 En 92:4; see 96:3). Similarly, in 1 En 103:3–4, many good things, joy and honor are said to be in store “for the souls of the pious who have died” (1 En 103:3). (This is part of the mystery that Enoch read in the tablets of heaven [1 En 103:2].) The spirits of the righteous “will be made alive” (Gp omits this clause). What it means for the disembodied spirits of the righteous to be made alive is not clear, but probably it is synonymous with being awakened. At any rate, this new type of existence includes immortality: “Their spirits shall not perish” (1 En 103:4). (The words “soul” and “spirit” seem to be used synonymously in this passage, thereby defying anthropological precision; all that can be said is that neither is the body.) The righteous who are made alive will even have a better lot than the righteous who remain embodied at the time of final judgment (1 En 103:4). All the righteous, both those still alive and those “awakened” or “made alive,” are destined to shine like the lights of heaven, which may describe an angelic sort of existence (1 En 104:2, 4) (see Dan 12:3).(32) This explains why it is said that the righteous, after their eschatological transformation, will have the windows of heaven opened unto them (104:2b), will rejoice as the angels in heaven (104:4b) and will be partners with the angels (1 En 104:6b). (1 En 104:4 is lacking in the Greek text, as is the phrase “For you will be partners with the angels” in 1 En 104:6b.) Exactly, what kind of existence, however, is in store eschatologically for the righteous is uncertain, since they seem to be destined for both a renewed corporeal existence and an angelic type of existence.(33)

In the Book of Jubilees, there is also an oblique reference to the eschatological blessedness of the martyrs who died during the Antiochan persecution: “And their bones will rest in the earth and their spirits will rejoice” (23:31; see 1 En 103:4).(34) It is not clear what will happen to the rest of the righteous dead at the eschaton, but possibly they will be rewarded with the same type of disembodied blessedness, as opposed to being returned to a renewed earth.(35)

In 4QPseudo-Ezekiel, the righteous dead are destined to be eschatologically rewarded. After Yahweh’s promise to rescue his people, Ezekiel asks when these things will happen (4Q385 frg. 2.3 = 4Q386 frg. 1, col. 1.2; 4Q388 frg. 7.5). What is significant is that implicitly the author reinterprets the people of Yahweh to mean only the righteous, for Ezekiel wants to know from Yahweh what the reward will be for “many of Israel” who “have loved your name and have walked in the ways of your [heart]” (4Q385 frg. 2.2–3 = 4Q386 frg. 1, col. 1.1–2; 4Q388 frg. 7.4). (For the epithet "those who love your name," see Ps 5:12; 119:132. The phrase "in the ways of your heart" has parallels in Eccl. 11:9; CD 1.11; 1QHa 12[4].18; 14[6].21 4Q434 frg. 1, col. 1.11). These designations clearly denote only those Jews who are obedient to the Law, excluding all others. In the historical context, they could refer to those conservative Jews—possibly identical to the Chasidim—who resisted the Hellenizing compromises of their day.(36) The righteous are owed an eschatological reward for their obedience to the Law. So Ezekiel, referring to the righteous in Israel, asks, “How will they be compensated for their piety?” (chsdm) (4Q385 frg. 2.3 = 4Q386 frg. 1, col. 1.2; 4Q388 frg. 7.5). The term chsd is used with the meaning of meritorious works (see the parallels in Isa 55:3; Neh 13:14; 2 Chron 32:32; Sir 49:3 [B]; 4Q398 frgs. 14–17, col. 2.1). It is affirmed that to the righteous from Israel belongs the covenant, which God will give to them at the appointed time (4Q385 frg. 2.1 = 4Q388 frg. 8.3). This no doubt means that to them alone will the blessings of the covenant be eschatologically given. Yahweh assures Ezekiel that the righteous will indeed be recompensed for their piety: “I will make (it) manifest [ ] to the sons of Israel and they will know that I am Yahweh” (4Q385 frg. 2.4). (By “sons of Israel,” the author probably means the righteous alone.)

In order to answer the question of how the righteous will be compensated, the author of 4QPseudo-Ezekiel reinterprets the Vision of the Dry Bones from Ezek 37:1–14. He presents an abbreviated version of Ezekiel’s vision consisting of Ezek 37:4, 7b, 6a, 8, 9, 10b.(37) In the biblical account, the reassembling of the bodies and revivification of them serves to symbolize Israel’s restoration to the land after the exile. It is emphasized that national restoration is not a reward for anything done by the exiles; in fact, Yahweh acts for his own sake (see Ezek 36:22). In the author’s interpretation, however, the Vision of the Dry Bones is no longer a metaphor for post-exilic restoration, but has become a literal description of the restoration of the bodies of the righteous as a reward for their obedience to the Law (see Dan 12:1–2 for a similar conditional resurrection).(38) The exact nature of these resurrected bodies is not specified; whether they have been transformed so as no longer to be subject to the conditions of mortality is unknown. Nevertheless, unlike the biblical account, upon being revivified, the righteous bless Yahweh: “And a large crowd of people came to life and blessed Yahweh of hosts” (4Q385 frg. 2.8). This confirms that the author intends that the Vision of the Dry Bones be interpreted as the corporeal resurrection of the righteous.

In 4 Ezra 7:97, it is said of the deceased righteous that their “face is to shine like the sun and they are to be made like the light of the stars,” which is an unmistakable allusion to Dan 12:3 (see 4 Ezra 7:125). To be so described is to be incorruptible.(39) So, if the eschatological hope of the righteous dead is some form of corporeal existence, their future bodies will be nothing like what is defined as corporeal in this age, but will be incorruptible bodies. Before the judgment, the righteous who have died exist in a disembodied state of a sevenfold blessedness, which is denied to the disembodied wicked (4 Ezra 7:88–101, 121). Upon death, it is explained that the soul of the righteous person leaves the body and returns to God, presumably to live a state of blessedness until the time of fulfillment (4 Ezra 7:78).

Similarly, in 2 Baruch, it is said that at the eschaton the treasuries will be opened in which the souls of the righteous have been stored, where they are said “to sleep in hope” (2 Bar 30:1–2). Because of their obedience to the Law the righteous will be gloriously transformed (2 Bar 51:1–6; see 42:7). Paradise will be stretched out for them (2 Bar 51:11). They will begin to see the invisible world and inhabit it, being like angels and equal to the stars (2 Bar 51:8–10) (see Dan 12:3; 1 En 62:13–16; 104:2–4). They will be able to assume any form that they desire (2 Bar 51:10). Also, time will cease for the righteous, as they now begin to see the invisible time (2 Bar 51:8–9). The exact nature of the existence of the righteous after their eschatological transformation is difficult to determine; if it is some type of renewed corporeal existence, it is completely discontinuous with their previous corporeal existence.(40)

Source

Wooden Combs from Qumran These wooden combs, c. six cm. long and made of boxwood, were found at Qumran; they date from first century BCE to first century CE. The side of these combs with more closely-spaced teeth was used for for delousing the scalp, whereas the other side with teeth farther apart was used for combing the hair.

1.1.2. Qumran Sectarian Writings

It is appropriate to distinguish Qumran sectarian texts from those identified as non-sectarian or pre-sectarian.(41) The texts of sectarian origin cannot be assumed to represent generally-accepted Jewish views from the second-Temple period; indeed, there are elements in these texts that are unique to the Essene movement. Nevertheless, in the Qumran sectarian writings, God is also depicted as a righteous judge, who deals with human beings and especially Jews as they deserve. For this reason, God will reward eschatologically the members of the community for their obedience to the Law properly interpreted. What the members contribute to their eschatological salvation is their perfect obedience.

A. Eschatological Reward of the Members of the Community

For the members of the Essene community, the sum total of the righteous in Israel, the time of eschatological judgment will mean life and blessing. In the Thanksgiving Hymns, it is promised that for the righteous God will “open up all the oppression of his soul to eternal salvation and peace without end, without lack," which is a promise of eternal life and blessedness (1QH-a 7.20 [15.16]).(42) In contrast to the wicked, those who walk on the path of God’s heart, as revealed to the Teacher, will live eternally: “Those who please you will stand before you forever; those who walk in the way of your heart shall be established for evermore” (1QH-a 12[4].21b–22a). The reward for obedience seems to be some form of eternal life. There are also references in the Thanksgiving Hymns to the righteous being recorded in a heavenly book. It is said that God records the righteous spirit ” (1QHa 8.18[16.10]); this seems to mean that God keeps records of the deeds of the righteous, presumably for the purpose of rewarding them.(43) This interpretation is confirmed by what follows: The author says that he has chosen to purify his hands according to God’s will. That is to say, in light of the fact of God’s record-keeping, the author responds by resolving to be obedient. The same idea is found in 1QHa 9[1].24: “Everything has been engraved before you with the stylus of remembrance. . . and nothing will be hidden and nothing will be absent from before you.” This passage probably refers to the record of the deeds of all human beings made on heavenly tablets, which will be the basis of final judgment and will issue in reward for the righteous.(44)

According to the Two-Ways Teaching in the Rule of the Community, God has established two “spirits” in which a person can walk until the time of his visitation, which are identified as the spirits of truth and of deceit (3.18–19). The “visitation” of those who walk in the spirit of truth will be “healing, great peace with many days and progeny with blessings forever in everlasting life” (1QS 4.6b–7a). (The term "visitation" [pqwdh] also occurs in 1QS 3.14, 18; 4.6, 11, 19, 26. For its meaning as punishment in the Old Testament, see Num 16:29; Isa 10:3; Jer 8:12; Mic 7:4.) This seems to refer to an eternal existence of blessedness on the earth.(45) The reward of the righteous is also said to consist of “a crown of glory together with a garment of honor in eternal light” (1QS 4.7b–8). These are vague, metaphorical ways of describing the eschatological benefits to be received by the sons of light. (On “crown of glory,” see Ps 8:5; T.Benj. 4:1.) The phrase “in eternal light” is causal, meaning through eternal light, probably a reference to God.(46)

Similarly, in the Habakkuk Pesher, it is said of the community that God will exempt its members from final judgment. This is said to be the meaning of Hab 2:4: “But the righteous shall live by his faith.” The author writes, “Its interpretation concerns all those who do the Law in the house of Judah whom God will rescue from the house of judgment on account of their suffering and their faithfulness to the Teacher of Righteousness” (1QpHab 8.1–3). The phrase “all those who do the Law” denotes the community (see 1QpHab 7.11; 12.4–5), whose members alone belong to covenant people, “the house of Judah” (see CD 4.11). Although there is no justice for the community in the present, those who remain with the Teacher and suffer for their loyalty to him can expect eschatological vindication by God and exemption from final judgment. To use the idiom in the Habakkuk Pesher, God will “rescue” the members of the community from “the house of judgment” (see 1QpHab 12.14). The term “house of judgment” represents both the place and the event of eschatological judgment (see 1QpHab 10.3).(47) To be exempted from final judgment by default means positively to receive eschatological reward.

In the Damascus Document, it is explained that, from the death of the Teacher of Righteousness until the end of those apostates who left the community under the leadership of the “Man of the Lie,” there will be forty years, an obviously symbolic number (CD 20.13b–22). During this period anarchy will reign, being the time of the wrath of God. Because of their faithfulness during this forty-year period of God’s wrath, the members of the community will be eschatologically rewarded. Quoting from Mal 3:16, the author writes, “God will heed their words and hear, and a book of remembrance will be written before him of those who fear God and think on his name” (CD 20.18b–20a). The reference to those who fear God and think on his name in Mal 3:16 is interpreted as the members of the community who persevere until the end. God will record their names in a “book of remembrance” (see Exod 32:32–33; Ps 69:28; Dan 12:1). At the end, God will distinguish in judgment between “the righteous and the wicked, between the one who serves God and the one who does not,” which is a quotation from Mal 3:18 (CD 20.20b–21a). God is described as “showing mercy to thousands, to those who love him, to whomever is faithful to him for a thousand generations,” a composite quotation from Exod 20:6 and Deut 7:9.(48) It is probable that “for a thousand generations” is being interpreted to mean that God will grant eternal life to the members of the community (see CD 19.1–2; see 20.20b–21a).(49)

B. Obedience as Means of Eschatological Salvation

The purpose for which God gave the Law and then revealed to the original members of the community its proper interpretation was in order that obedience to it might lead to eschatological salvation. This is nowhere more clearly stated than in the Damascus Document. Immediately following the warning not to defile one’s holy spirit, it is explained, “For those who walk by these in perfect holiness according to all his teaching the covenant of God is an assurance for them that they shall live for a thousand generations” (CD 7.4b–6a) (see CD 20.2, 5, 7). Synonymous with not defiling one’s holy spirit is walking in perfect holiness according to God’s teaching (see CD 4.8 ). In effect, this means to adopt the community’s halaka. Those who enter the community and perfectly obey the Law as interpreted by the community can be confident of receiving eternal life, for this is God’s covenantal promise. The text in CD B (19.1–2) adds, “As it is written, he keeps the covenant and steadfast love with those who love him and keep his commandments for a thousand generations” (Deut 7:9).(50) This textual expansion explicitly anchors this understanding of covenant in the Torah. Deut 7:9 is interpreted to mean that those who love God and keep his commandments will live on indefinitely (“for a thousand generations”) (see CD 3.19–20). In contrast, God will render to those who reject his commandments what they deserve: “to return the recompense of the wicked upon them” (CD 6.9b–10a). Apostates from the community will also suffer the same fate (CD 8.1–2; CD 19.13b–14).(51)

There is another reflection on the founding of the community in the Damascus Document in which it is clear that the ultimate purpose for which God clarified for the community his requirements was in order that its members might obtain eschatological salvation. The author explains, “God established his covenant with Israel forever, revealing to them hidden matters in which Israel had gone astray . . . which a man must do in order to live by them” (CD 3.13b–16a).(52) The hidden matters in which Israel had gone astray represent the correct interpretation of the Law unknown to the nation. These God revealed to “Israel,” but Israel means in this context, not the whole nation, but those Jews whom God deemed worthy because of their prior obedience: “But from those who held fast to the commandments of God, who remained in them, God established his covenant with Israel forever” (CD 3.12–13). Presumably, the obedience to the commandments before God revealed the “hidden matters in which Israel had gone astray” was misinformed but adequate enough to warrant God’s merciful revelation of what constituted true obedience. The author continues, “[These] he opened before them, and dug a well of abundant waters” (CD 3.16). The phrase “to dig a well of abundant waters” is an allusion to the community’s pesher-interpretation of Num 21:18, in which the well is interpreted as the Law, which is “dug,” or interpreted, by the community and in particular by the “ruler,” identified as the interpreter of the Law (see CD 6.2–11a). Without such knowledge of correct halaka, obedience would be impossible, with the result that no one could gain life thereby. (In particular, God revealed information about when in the year Israel should hold “his holy Sabbaths” and “his glorious festivals,” i.e., according to a 364 day solar calendar [see 11QPs-a; Jub. 6; 1 En 72–82].)(53) The phrase “which a man must do in order to live by them” is an allusion to Lev 18:5 (see Ezek 20:11, 13, 21), in which it is explained to Israel that life comes through obedience to the Law. Joining the community is in effect being given the opportunity to do the Law correctly and then to gain life through doing so.(54) The author then adds this warning for emphasis, “But those who reject them will not live” (CD 3.17a). In other words, only those who remain members in good standing in this community through perfect obedience to the Law according to its proper interpretation—the halaka of the community—will receive eschatological salvation. The author further explains, “And he built for them a sure house in Israel. . . . Those who hold fast to it are destined for eternal life and the glory of Adam is for them” (CD 3.19–20) (see 1QS 4.23). What the phrase “to build a sure house” means will be discussed below; the point to note at this time is that only those who have joined the community and have kept the Law have the hope of “eternal life and the glory of Adam,” which are synonymous terms for eschatological salvation.

Following the penal code in the Damascus Document and situated at the end of the work, there is what is probably an expulsion ceremony, which is absent from both versions of Cairo Damascus Document (4QD-a frg. 11; 4QD-e frg. 7, cols. 1–2).(55) It seems that, during the annual covenant renewal ceremony held on the Festival of Weeks (“in the third month”), the community expels those members who have refused to be disciplined by the community for their sins: “When he rebels against the many he shall be sent away” (4QD-a frg. 11.7). The presiding priest offers a prayer in which he justifies this severe punitive measure. In his prayer, he begins by reciting a blessing followed by a brief salvation-historical account of God’s dealings with Israel culminating in the giving of the Law. The priest prays, “And you chose our fathers and to their descendents you gave your true statutes and your holy laws, which if a man does them he shall live” (4QD-a frg. 11.12). There is an unmistakable allusion to Lev 18:5 in this passage. It is clear that, according to the community, doing the Law as interpreted by the community is a means of gaining eschatological life. The Law is also called “boundaries” which God set up for Israel (see 4QD-a frg. 1.4; CD 5.20; 19.15). Alluding to Deut 28, the priest says that anyone who transgresses the boundaries set by God is cursed. He adds the historical note that only the community, represented by the “we” in the prayer, has not come under a curse, because it alone has obeyed the Law correctly. Since he is no longer obedient to the Law as interpreted by the community, the unrepentant transgressor must be expelled: “The one being sent away will depart” (4QD-a frg. 11.14). Such a man thereby forfeits the possibility of eschatological life through proper obedience to the Law.

A similar explanation of the origin and purpose of the community is found in Barkhi Nafshi. God revealed to the community the proper interpretation of the Law, for without this, it would have remained under judgment because its members would still have been disobedient. It is explained, “He [God] opened their eyes to behold his ways, and their ears to hear his teaching” (4Q434 frg. 1, col. 1.3–4a). In the same vein, it is said, “In the way of his heart he also brought them near because they pledged with their spirit” (4Q434 frg. 1, col. 1.11). This seems to describe how God revealed to the community his commandments or “the way of his heart,” in response to its prior readiness to be obedient. In another passage, the author says that God revealed to this group the “laws of peace and truth” (4Q434 frg. 1, col. 1.9). The phrase “laws of peace and truth” is probably a genitive of purpose: laws for the purpose of obtaining peace and truth. If so, then “peace and truth” are synonymous soteriological terms.(56) Eschatological salvation is dependent upon a proper understanding of the commandments. The point is that God revealed the proper understanding of the commandments to the community, in order to give its members the possibility of obtaining eschatological salvation by doing them.

The idea that obedience to the Law correctly interpreted is the condition of eschatological salvation also occurs in the Halakhic Letter. The author reassures his reader that the latter will rejoice at the end time if he follows the author’s counsel, because at that time he will discover that the author’s halakic views are correct. In other words, the author expects God to vindicate him and his community at the eschaton. It is the purpose of the Halakhic Letter to set forth these correct interpretations of the Law in opposition to the more liberal views of the author’s opponents. This is what is meant by the phrase “some works of the Law” (C 30). The phrase “works of the Law” could be interpreted as an objective genitive, meaning works that fulfill the Law or as a subjective genitive, meaning works that the Law requires. In either case, it is clear that the phrase denotes works that conform to the Law. The author continues, “Thus, it will be reckoned to you as righteousness when you do what is upright and good before God, for your own good and that of Israel” (C 30–33). (The phrase "to do what is upright and good before him" occurs in Deut 6:18, whereas "to do what is good and upright before him" is found in Deut 12:8 and 1QS 1.2.) The word “righteousness” is used in this context to describe what a Jew possesses as a result of consistent obedience to the Law properly interpreted. To have righteousness is to be acceptable to God by virtue of having done the “works of the Law” (C 30).(57) Presumably, the author has in view the final judgment when God will declare all Jews (or human beings) either as righteous or unrighteous using as a criterion obedience to a properly-interpreted Torah. (See also Jub. 31:23-24: And he made the two sons of Jacob sleep, the one on his right hand and the other on his left, and it was counted to him for righteousness.) If so, then the “good” is an eschatological good and so may be interpreted as eschatological salvation.(58) This is why it is so important for the reader to have correct halakic views. Since God rewards obedience, knowledge of correct halaka will be a great benefit for the reader and for Israel, insofar as the former has the power to influence the religious affairs of the nation.(59) Presumably, the author has in view the final judgment when God will declare all Jews (or human beings) either as righteous or unrighteous using as his criterion obedience to the Law correctly interpreted. The ultimate reward for obedience is eschatological salvation.

 

E. P. Sanders is the modern representative of the anti-Weberian reconstruction of early Judaism as a religion of works-righteousness, which, unlike its predecessors, now includes the Dead Sea Scrolls among its sources. He seeks to organize all the data in support of the interpretation of early Judaism as fundamentally characterized by God’s covenant with Israel; detracting data are explained in terms that do not undermine the validity of this organizational center. (Many scholars see Sanders’ work as watershed study exposing the anti-Jewish bias of much of traditional scholarship.) Sanders argues that early Judaism exhibits a single “pattern of religion,” which is how a religion functions, in particular, a description of “how getting in and staying in are understood” (Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 12-17). Unlike older, traditional scholarship, he believes that the depiction of God as merciful is central to early Judaism (except 4 Ezra); he describes its “pattern of religion” as “covenantal nomism.” Sanders does not deny that Jews were required to obey the Law; to do so, however, was not a means of “getting in,” but of “staying in.” Sanders identifies the following characteristics of covenantal nomism: a. God has chosen Israel; b. And given the Law; c. The Law implies i. God's promise to maintain the election; ii. The requirement to obey; d. God rewards obedience and punishes transgression; e. The Law provides for means of atonement; f. This results in maintenance of relationship or re-establishment of same; g. All who are maintained in the covenant will be saved. Salvation and one's place in the covenant are a result of God's mercy (Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 422; "Jesus, Paul, and Judaism," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II, 25,1; ed. Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haases; Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1982) 394 On this interpretation of early Judaism, God is unconditionally committed to his covenant people, Israel, and therefore willing to forgive all individual transgressions of the Law on the simple condition of repentance, which is not meritorious performance, but merely the acceptance of the offer of mercy. The fact that Jews are judged based on their obedience or disobedience to the Law, however, renders Sanders’ distinction between “getting in” and “staying in” virtually meaningless. It makes little difference if a person “gets in” by obedience or “stays in,” because both “getting in” and “staying in” are tied causally to obedience to the Law. The distinction is purely theoretical and would make no difference in the experience of a Jew.

1.2. God as Merciful

1.2.1. Non-Sectarian Writings

In non-sectarian texts from the second-Temple and post-destruction periods, God is not only depicted as a righteous judge, who rewards the righteous with eschatological salvation for their obedience to the Law, but also as merciful, who removes guilt resulting from transgression of the Law on the simple condition of repentance. In this way, God does not deal with human beings as they deserve, with the result that they do not have to bear eschatologically the consequences of their disobedience. In fact, there are no limits on God’s mercy provided that the righteous person who is sincere in his quest. What this means is that there is hope for those Jews who fall short of perfect obedience to the Law. The transgressions of the righteous will not be held against them at the final judgment. God will not condemn either those who have recently become righteous through repentance after lifelong disobedience or those who, though habitually obedient, sin occasionally but uncharacteristically and then repent of those sins. The removal of guilt is what God contributes to the goal of eschatological salvation. Imperfect obedience in combination with God’s merciful removal of guilt will qualify them for this goal.

A. Possibility of Removal of Guilt

In non-sectarian writings from the second-Temple, God is depicted as being willing to remove guilt resulting from disobedience to the commandments. The idea of God’s removal of guilt is expressed variously, in different languages. God can forgive a person (Pr Man 13), grant his forgiveness (ton exilasmon autou) (Sir 18:12), or just pardon (4 Ezra 7:139). God can also cleanse from sin (Sir 23:10), cleanse a soul from sin (Ps. Sol. 9:6), cleanse from all sin and defilement (Jub. 22:14), purify of iniquity (Prayer of Deliverance 14) or just cleanse a person (Ps. Sol. 10:2). A person can atone for his sin by means of an action (Ps. Sol. 3:7–8; LAB 64:9) or an action can atone for sin (Sir 3:3, 30–31) or wickedness (LAB 64:9). God can forgive sins (or equivalent term) (Sir 2:11; Jub. 5:17; 22:14; Ps. Sol. 9:7; 4Q504 frg. 4.7; Prayer for Deliverance 13). God can also overlook sin (4Q417 frg. 2, col. 1.15), pardon transgressions (Jub. 5:17), wipe away transgressions (Ps. Sol. 13:10) or blot out sins (4 Ezra 7:138–40). On the assumption that God as righteous judge renders to each according to his works one might not expect the possibility of the all-inclusive removal of guilt. Yet, however it is expressed, this idea permeates the sources.

In Wisdom of Ben Sira, God is not only portrayed as a righteous judge, but also as merciful: “He makes room for every act of mercy” (Sir 16:14). In particular, Ben Sira says, “He is mighty to forgive” (Sir 16:11b). This means that God does not always repay human beings according to what they have done, that those who have chosen “death” instead end up receiving “life” (see Sir 15:17). Because they are so pathetically short-lived, God is all the more inclined to be merciful and to grant his forgiveness to human beings (Sir 18:11–12). The Lord is described in biblical terms as “compassionate and full of lovingkindness”; he forgives sins and rescues from times of distress” (Sir 2:11).(60) For this reason, Ben Sira advises that a person examine himself and seek forgiveness before judgment comes (Sir 18:20–21). He also characterizes the scribe as an ideal of humanity insofar as he daily prays for (the forgiveness of) his sins (Sir 39:5) (see Sir 21:1, 6).

Likewise, in the Book of Jubilees, even though he as righteous judge gives to all human beings what their free choices deserve, both in history and eschatologically, God as merciful is willing to remove the guilt resulting from sin. This means that it is possible for a person to avoid the consequences of his disobedience. In his blessing of his grandson Jacob, Abraham says, “May he [God] cleanse you from all sin and defilement, so that he might forgive all your transgressions and your erring through ignorance” (Jub. 22:14). Naturally, for the author, what is said to Jacob would apply equally to his descendents. The exact interrelationship between the terms used is difficult to determine. Likely, being cleansed from sin and defilement is synonymous with forgiveness of transgressions and sins of ignorance. In general, what is meant is the removal of guilt resulting from disobedience to the Law. That “transgressions” refer to intentional sins and the “sins of ignorance” to unintentional sins is possible, but more likely the two terms together denote sins in general. The implication of calling sins “sins of ignorance” is that they may be atoned for, unlike sins of the high hand (see Num 15:27–31).

Although it is not a major theme in his work, the author of Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum seems to believe in the possibility of the removal of guilt resulting from sin.(61) In fact, this is a necessity, because there is no one without sin, not even in Israel. In his prayer just before his death, Moses says, “For who is the man who has not sinned against you? And unless your patience abides, how would your heritage be established, if you were not merciful to them? Or who will yet be born without sin? Now you will correct them for a time, but not in anger” (LAB 19:9).

Similarly, although the dominant portrayal of him in 2 Baruch is that of a righteous judge, God is also depicted as merciful. Baruch explains to the people that God is merciful and gracious (2 Bar 77:6–7). He is described as longsuffering towards sinners and the righteous (2 Bar 24:2). In fact, the author sees Israel’s punishment as ultimately leading to forgiveness (2 Bar 13:9–10; 78:3, 5–6). In addition, he confesses that God judges Israel according to the multitude of his grace; if he did not, “Woe to all us who are born” (2 Bar 84:11). This seems to mean that God does not bring upon the righteous in Israel what they truly deserve, for otherwise they would be condemned along with the wicked. Such a statement implies that the righteous are not perfect, but only imperfectly obedient. Thus, ultimately, the righteous owe their eschatological salvation to the mercy of God; even though they become qualified for it by means of their obedience to the Law, God does not require perfect obedience, but something less than that. He mercifully removes the guilt of those uncharacteristic sins committed by the righteous.

B. Repentance

In the sources, it is on the simple condition of repentance that God as merciful removes guilt resulting from disobedience to the Law. God no longer takes into account the sins previously committed when a person turns from those sins towards a renewed obedience to the Law. This idea is commonplace in the sources and is expressed by means of different terminology in different languages. (According to 1 En 94:10; 102:8-9, the possibility of repentance ends at death.)Tobit exhorts his recalcitrant compatriots, “If you turn back to him [God] with your whole heart and your whole soul and do the truth before him, he will turn towards you” (Tobit 13:6a; see 13:1–6). The exiles are to repent and thereby begin to do God’s will; as a result, their past sins will no longer be counted against them. According to Ben Sira, God’s mercy manifests itself in the ever-present possibility of repentance, which results in the removal of guilt from sin.(62) Without the undeserved possibility of repentance human beings would be destroyed: “Do not reproach the man who is repenting of sin; remember that all of us deserve to be punished” (Sir 8:5).(63) This means that human beings can nullify the negative effects of their free choices to do evil simply by turning back to God and becoming obedient. God will not count the sins against the one who repents. Ben Sira asserts that, although he will repay a sinner for his deeds, God willingly receives back the sinner who repents (Sir 17:23–26); in response to repentance, God removes the guilt resulting from sin. In Sir 17:29, Ben Sira concludes, “How great is the mercy of the Lord and his forgiveness for those who return to him.”

In 4QInstruction, the sage advises, “Do not pass over your own sins” (4Q417 frg. 2, col. 1.14 [formerly frg. 1, col. 1]). Doubtless, he means that a person should confess and repent of his sins. The effect of following the sage’s advice is the removal of guilt that results from sin and exemption from judgment: “Then God will appear, his anger will turn back and he will overlook your sin” (4Q417 frg. 2, col. 1.15 [formerly frg. 1, col. 1] = 4Q418 frg. 7.1). If a person is willing to examine himself and confess the ways in which he has disobeyed (‘and do not overlook your own sins’), God is willling to remove the guilt that results from that disobedience (‘and he will overlook your sin’). In other words, this is another expression of the widespread notion that God as merciful allows repentance to remove the guilt resulting from sin.

Psalms of Solomon portrays God as willing to remove guilt resulting from any sin on the condition of repentance. Although they are not perfect,(64) the righteous differ from the wicked insofar as, when they sin, they repent immediately.(65) In response to this initiative, God shows mercy to them. The psalmist writes, “The righteous constantly searches his house to remove unrighteousness in his transgressions (adikian en paraptômati autou)” (Ps. Sol. 3:7; see 13:10).(66) “To remove unrighteousness in his transgressions” seems to mean to remove the unrighteousness that has resulted from violations of God’s commandments, so that the en is being used instrumentally (“by means of”). He then adds that the righteous man atones for his unknowing sins (agnoias) by fasting and the humbling of his soul” (Ps. Sol. 3:7–8). It is possible that the use of paraptôma in Ps. Sol. 3:7 and agnoia in Ps. Sol. 3:8 reflects the biblical distinction between intentional and unintentional sins in Num 15:27–31. Indeed, the clause “He atones for his unknowing sins seems to be influenced by Lev 5:18: “And the priest shall atone for him for his unknowing sin.” (Lev 5:17–18 describes the procedure for the atonement of any unintentional sin.)(67) But, given the looseness of the terminology, it is more likely that the terms paraptôma and agnoia are more or less synonyms, standing in relation to each other in synthetic parallel construction. (The term hamartia in Ps. Sol. 3:10, used to describe what the sinner does, is probably intended as a harsher term.)(68) The use of agnoia carries with it the connotation of unintentionality. The implication of calling the righteous man’s sin an agnoia is that a righteous person sins unintentionally in the sense of sinning uncharacteristically, as not reflecting his true nature.(69) Proof of the unintentional nature of the sins of the righteous is the fact that they repent of them. Thus, because all of their sins are unintentional and liable to atonement (see Num 15), God grants forgiveness to the righteous man for any sin committed when he repents of his sin, turning back to obedience to the Law in fasting and the humbling of his soul. It should be noted that Ps. Sol. 3:7–8 is reminiscent of Lev 16:29–30, part of the instructions for the observance of the Day of Atonement, insofar as in both the phrase “to humble one’s soul” occurs. The implication seems to be that the possibility of atonement remains open perpetually for the righteous, and is not simply offered on an annual basis.(70)

In another psalm, the author confesses, “He [God] will cleanse a soul from sin in confessing and restoring” (Ps. Sol. 9:6). When they sin, the righteous have the confidence that, provided they confess and make restitution, God will cleanse them from their sins. The author continues, “And whose sins will he forgive except those who have sinned? You bless the righteous, and do not accuse them for what they have sinned. And your goodness is upon those who sin, when they repent” (Ps. Sol. 9:7). Remarkably, in this passage, the same group of Jews is called both righteous and said to sin or have sins. The righteous who sin, however, are not the same as the sinners (hamartôloi) who sin. Even though they also sin, the righteous are not sinners. The difference between them and the sinners is that the righteous repent when they sin.(71) The adverbial phrase “in repentance” (en metameleia) serves to qualify the sinning by the righteous and to specify the condition on which God will not accuse them when they sin, but will allow his goodness to be upon them.(72) To repent is to turn from sin towards a renewed obedience to the Law. It should also be noted that in this passage it seems that the possibility of the removal of guilt is tied to God’s covenant with the nation, since immediately following the discussion in Ps. Sol. 9:6–7 is found a description of God’s covenantal promise of compassion and mercy to Israel, the descendants of Abraham (Ps. Sol. 9:8–11).(73) God’s mercy to the righteous is probably grounded in his covenant with the nation, so that in effect the righteous are the nation.

Numerous references to unforgivable sins in the Book of Jubilees might lead one to conclude that not all sins are forgivable. In agreement with the Torah, sins unto death include not circumcising one’s son (Jub. 15:34), intermarrying with gentiles (Jub. 30:7–17), having sexual relations with the wife of one’s father (Jub. 33:10–17), not celebrating Passover (Jub. 49:9), eating blood (Jub. 6:12) and breaking the Sabbath (Jub. 2:25, 27; 50:8) (see the general category of the sin unto death in Jub. 21:22 and 26:34). For the author, to be executed for such sins is to be excluded from eternal life: “Let him die eternally” (Jub. 2:27). The case of Judah, however, renders this conclusion far from certain. Judah sinned by having sexual relations with his daughter-in-law, an offense liable to death in the Torah (Lev 18:15; 20:12). The author explains that Judah did not die for his sin because he sinned in ignorance, not knowing the true identity of Tamar, and because he repented and sought God’s forgiveness (Jub. 41). The angel tells Moses: “And we told him [Judah] in a dream that it was forgiven him because he made great supplication and because he mourned and did not do it again” (Jub. 41:24). Because Judah mourned for and turned from his sin of ignorance, there was forgiveness for him (Jub. 41:25).(74) If Judah could be forgiven for a sin liable to extirpation in the Torah, perhaps others can also. (Reuben was forgiven for his sexual relations with his father’s concubine Bilhah because the law against this practice had not yet been given [Jub. 33:15-16]. In this case, ignorance of the law was an excuse.) Those who commit sins unto death are those who have fundamentally rejected the religion of the father, which, for the author, probably refers to his Hellenizing compatriots. If so, then there is hope for the Jew who commits an unforgivable sin but who has no fundamental disposition to apostasy.

In 4QWords of the Luminaries, God’s mercy to his people manifests itself as the permanent provision of the removal of guilt on the condition of repentance. It seems that, on each Friday, confession of sin was to be made and pardon thereby received: “And now on this day on which our heart has been humbled, we obtain pardon for our sins and the sin of our fathers, together with our disloyalty and rebellion” (4Q504 frg. 2, col. 6.4b–6a). Although modeled on the experience of the exiles, the prayer was to be recited in perpetuum. The confession of the exiles and the resultant pardon of their sins became a pattern for all subsequent generations. The exiles confessed their guilt and that of their forefathers while in exile, humbling themselves before God.(75) As promised in Lev 26:41b, when it confessed and turned from its sin, the nation obtained pardon for its sin. After the exile, when necessary, God still accepts repentance as a means of pardon for individual or collective sin, which is why the experience of the exiles became the basis of this weekly prayer. In short, repentance is the condition of pardon for sin.

In Prayer of Manasseh, the Judean king is viewed as an extreme example of the mercy of God. If anyone deserved to die, Manasseh did, but because of his repentance in exile God removed his guilt. In exile Manasseh recognized his sin, turned from it and sought from God the removal of the guilt resulting from his lifetime of disobedience. He begins his prayer with a confession of God’s great power and the fact that God created all things. Alluding to Ps 145:5 (LXX 144), he confesses that God’s anger against sinners is terrifying: “Because the grandeur of your glory is unendurable and insufferable is the anger of your threat against sinners” (5). Contrasted to this is God’s mercy: “And immeasurable and immense is the mercy of your promise” (6). He then adds the following description of God as merciful: “Because you are the Lord most high, compassionate, longsuffering and rich in mercy and grieving over the evils of men” (7) (see Pss 86:15 [LXX 85]; 103:8 [LXX 102]; 145:8 (LXX 144); Exod 34:6; Num 14:18; Joel 2:13). (Although the word used is metanoôn, God should not be thought of as “repenting” over the evils of men but “grieving” or “feeling sorrowful” over them.) This reflection on the dual nature of God as righteous judge and as merciful in 2–8 serves as a prelude to Manasseh’s confession of sin (9–10) and his petition for God’s mercy (11–15a). Alluding to Ps 145:7 (LXX 144), Manasseh states that, according to the fullness of his goodness, God has promised release from sins to all who repent. Repentance is not appointed for the righteous, like the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, since for them repentance is unnecessary. Rather, God has appointed repentance for sinners (8). God is even called the God of those who repent (13). From the example of Manasseh, to repent means to be remorseful for sin and to turn from it to obedience to the Law. On the basis of God’s promise to receive those who repent, Manasseh petitions God to forgive him: “Forgive me, O Lord, forgive me” (13). Alluding to Ps 51:4 (LXX 50:6), Manasseh also confesses that his punishment is fully-deserved and that he is unworthy to receive forgiveness from God, “because I did evil things before you” (10). Nonetheless, he says that, in spite of his unworthiness, in him God will manifest his goodness (14). In this context, God’s “goodness” is that attribute whereby he shows mercy to the completely undeserving.

4Q381 33.8–11 also represents part of a prayer offered by Manasseh uttered when in prison. This is known because the title of this psalm is preserved: “Prayer of Manasseh, King of Judah, when the King of Assyria imprisoned him.” The psalm is related to the narrative about Manasseh in 2 Chron 33:10–13.(76) In this prayer, Manasseh says that he cringes before God because of his sins (4Q381 33.9–10), and seems to confess that his sin has removed from him the possibility of eternal joy: “But I have multiplied guilt. And so I [will be cut off] from eternal joy and my soul not behold the good.” If this translation is correct, Manasseh is probably lamenting the fact of his ruinous eternal fate. It seems that Manasseh fears that even in spite of his confession of sin he must still submit to God’s judgment, perhaps leading to eternal condemnation. This is why he says, “I wait for your saving presence.” It is virtually certain that the remainder of the psalm, now no longer extant, contained a description of Manasseh’s repentance and God’s merciful removal of his guilt, similar to the Greek Prayer of Manasseh.(77)

In spite of the predominance of the theme of God as righteous judge in 4 Ezra, God is also depicted as responding in mercy to human repentance. Uriel, the angelus interpres, who represents the author’s point of view, explains to Ezra that God offers to human beings the pre-eschatological possibility of repentance and the consequent removal of guilt. In this age, a human being has the freedom to obey the Law and to make use of the possibility of repentance, but this offer is forfeited at death: “And as many as scorned my Law while they still had freedom, and did not understand but despised it while an opportunity of repentance was still open to them, these must in torment acknowledge it after death” (4 Ezra 9:12). Similarly, the angel teaches that one reason that the state of the departed is lamentable is that, “They cannot now make a good repentance that they might live” (4 Ezra 7:82). From these two passages, it is clear that the author of 4 Ezra holds the view—ubiquitous in early Judaism—that God perpetually holds out the pre-eschatological possibility of repentance and removal of guilt.

Although not every statement out of his mouth is to be believed, nevertheless, since it is consistent with the angel’s teaching that God allows the possibility of repentance, Ezra’s description of God as merciful in his dialogues probably represents the authorial point of view.(78) Twice Ezra calls God “merciful” (misericors) (4 Ezra 7:132; 8:31).(79) God’s mercy is manifested insofar as, until death or the end of the age, when he will judge all human beings, God is said to be “gracious to all who turn in repentance to his Law” (4 Ezra 7:133). In other words, God freely removes the guilt of all who repent, those who turn from sin to obedience to the Law. In fact, in his patience, God postpones judgment until the end of the age, thus allowing the sinner opportunity to repent (4 Ezra 7:73–74, 134). If God did not do this, only the smallest fraction of human beings would find life: “And he [God] is called giver, because if he did not give out of his goodness so that those who have committed iniquities might be relieved of them, not one tenth of humanity could have life.” God is also called judge, because, “If he did not pardon those who were created by his word and blot out the multitude of their sins there would probably be left only very few of the innumerable multitude” (4 Ezra 7:138–40).

In 2 Baruch, before the time of final judgment, God as merciful offers to all the possibility of repentance and the removal of guilt (2 Bar. 85:12; see 85:4). Near the end of 2 Baruch is found a letter said to be written by Baruch at the request of the people remaining in the land to the exiles in Babylon and the nine and a half tribes living beyond the Euphrates. Baruch begins by speaking to the exiles collectively, describing the Babylonian exile as a national catastrophe caused by national sin, but then shifts his emphasis to admonish the people as individuals. He writes, “Therefore, if you think about the things you have suffered now for your good so that you may not be condemned at the end and be tormented, you shall receive hope which lasts for ever and ever, particularly if you remove from your hearts the idle error for which you went away from here” (2 Bar. 78:6). The nation was exiled for its sin, but would once again be the object of God’s mercy on account of the promises to the patriarchs (2 Bar. 78:7). The hope of the individual within the nation, however, is conditional upon responding appropriately to the discipline experienced as a part of the nation. When the divine discipline of the nation brings him to repentance, the individual within the nation will not be condemned at the last judgment, but live eternally. God will remove the guilt of the one who repents. It is explained that, in such cases, God will not judge strictly, according to the preponderance of acts of obedience over acts of disobedience (2 Bar. 41:6).

The Day of Atonement seems to have become in the second-Temple period the annual opportunity for the atonement of all sins. It is probable that there were no restrictions on the efficacy of this annual rite. In Jub. 5:17, the author affirms, “And for the children of Israel it has been written and ordained, ‘If they return to him in righteousness, he will forgive all of their sins and he will pardon all of their transgressions’.” Juxtaposed to this is the assurance that “He will have mercy on all who return from their error, once each year” (Jub. 5:18). This annual possibility of national atonement no doubt refers to the Day of Atonement (Lev 16). Probably, Jub. 5:17–18 derives from Lev 16:34 “This shall be an eternal statute for you, to make atonement for the people of Israel once a year for all their sins.”(80) An important addition to the biblical text, however, is the phrase “on all who return from their error”: A condition of receiving atonement on this day is repentance. (According to Jub. 5:19, the annual possibility of atonement was not given before the flood; only to Noah and his sons did God show mercy.) Later, the author explains that the reason that the Day of Atonement is on the tenth day of the seventh month is because this was the day on which Jacob learned of Joseph’s presumed fate: It is appropriate that the descendents of the sons of Jacob mourn on the day that his sons caused him to mourn (Jub. 34:18). The author then speaks about the purpose of this religious rite: “And this day is decreed so that they might mourn on it on account of their sins and on account of their transgressions and on account of all their errors in order to purify themselves on this day, once a year” (Jub. 34:19). The use of three different terms to denote ways in which the Israelites have fallen short of God’s standard of righteousness seems to imply that all sins can be atoned for on the Day of Atonement.(81) (This statement of the purpose of the Day of Atonement is dependent upon Lev 16:21.) In other words, there are no restrictions on the possibility of atonement for individuals within the nation who, having repented, fast and sincerely seek cleansing from sins on this day.

Along the same lines, the author of Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum understands the Day of Atonement as an annual opportunity to receive mercy: “Through a fast of mercy (per ieunium misericordie) you will fast for me for your own souls, in order that the promises made to your fathers may be fulfilled” (13:6). Since Moses is the speaker, these promises refer to the promises made to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Probably, the author believes that on the Day of Atonement, on the condition of fasting, a Jew can procure atonement for all sins, and so be qualified to receive the covenantal promises. It is called a “fast of mercy” because participation on the Day of Atonement results in the atonement of sins, which then qualifies the nation to receive the promises.

 

H. Räisänen defines "legalism" somewhat ambiguously as the idea that "Salvation consists of the observance of precepts" ("Legalism and Salvation by the Law. Paul's Portrayal of the Jewish Religion as a Historical and Theological Problem," Die paulinische Literatur und Theologie [ed. S. Pedersen; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980] 63-83, esp. 64). He further distinguishes between what he calls a "hard" legalism and a "soft" or "torah-centric" legalism. The latter, unlike the former, does not involve boasting or self-righteousness, because it is devoid of the idea that obedience earns eschatological salvation and thereby qualifies the obedient to make a claim on God. According to Räisänen, the "soft" or "torah-centric" legalism was characteristic of second-Temple Judaism, so that it inconceivable that Paul could portray the Jews of his day as believing that they could earn their salvation by doing the Law. Contrary to Räisänen's claim there is an abundance of evidence that Jews believed that the condition of receiving covenantal blessings, including eschatological salvation, is obedience to the Law. One call can this legalism, whether hard or soft it does not matter. What he misses is that there there is a tension in early Judaism between God as righteous judge and as merciful.

1.2.2. Qumran Sectarian Writings

God is not only depicted as a righteous judge in the Qumran sectarian writings, but also as merciful, insofar as he does not deal with Jews as they deserve. Rather than destroying the nation for its sin, God as merciful preserved a remnant with which he renewed his covenant; that remnant is identical with the community. Repentance and entrance into the community brings the removal of guilt resulting from sins committed prior to joining the community. Even after having entered the community, the removal of guilt resulting from sin is possible, in spite of the expectation of perfect obedience. The removal of guilt was God’s indispensable contribution to the eschatological salvation of the members of the community.

A. Removal of Guilt Upon Entry into Community

The Qumran community understands itself as the fulfillment of the promise to Israel that after the exile God would turn again in mercy to his people and renew the covenant made with the patriarchs. Thus, the biblical idea of the remnant of Israel is defined in such a way that it includes only those Jews who have truly repented and in so doing have become part of the community. The fact that the community is the result of the renewal of the covenant made with the patriarchs explains why entrance into the community is synonymous with entering or crossing over into the covenant (1QS 1.16–20). It also explains why the community is called “the council of God” (1.8): The members of the community represent the totality of God’s people (see 1QS 2.25; 3.2, 6; 6.16; 7.2; 8.1, 5). In accordance with the promise of a post-exilic renewal of the covenant, God as merciful removes all guilt incurred by previous sins from those who join the community, which is synonymous with entering the covenant. This occurs on the condition of repentance, the turning from sin to obedience to the Law as interpreted by the community. God as merciful allows repentance to be the means by which their guilt is removed, so that they avoid punishment for their sins.(82)

It is through repentance and joining the community that the possibility of the removal of guilt becomes actual. For this reason, entrance into the community is understood as entrance into “the covenant of mercy” because God mercifully allows repentance to remove guilt resulting from past transgressions of the Law (1QS 1.8). Similarly, in CD 2.2–13, which is a delineation of the theoretical foundation of the community, it is affirmed about God that “Longsuffering and abundant forgiveness (twxyls bwr) are with him to atone for all who repent from sin” (2.4b–5a) (see Exod 34:5–7; Ps 86:15). The phrase “all who repent from sin,” probably taken from Isa 59:20, denotes those who enter the community. In the Hebrew Bible, the phrase “to atone for," with two exceptions, is used cultically to describe the effect of the burnt and the sin offerings (Lev 9:7; 16:6, 11, 17, 24; Ezek 45:17). The two exceptions are found in Exod 32:30 and 2 Chron 30:18, where the term is used generally to mean the removal of guilt. The phrase is likewise used in a general sense in CD 2.5: God removes the guilt of those who choose to enter the renewed covenant.(83) Because of his longsuffering and abundant forgiveness, God atones for “all who enter the covenant” (CD 2.2), rather than judging them according to their guilt. In other words, God removes guilt for those who join the community on the condition of repentance.

A description of God’s atonement of the original members of the community occurs in the Damascus Document: “And God by his wonderful mysteries atoned for their iniquity and removed their sins” (CD 3.18). Presumably, atonement was necessary because these first members had actually gone astray, perhaps by outright disobedience and certainly by not having a full understanding of the Law. God is said to have atoned “by his wonderful mysteries.” The use of the term “mysteries” seems to imply that this phase of salvation history in which God as merciful atones for sin in this comprehensive manner was previously unknown to Israel but has now been revealed. It is also said that God “built them a sure house in Israel” (CD 3.19). Klinzing interprets the reference to the building of “a sure house in Israel” as an allusion to the interpretation of the community as Temple.(84) He sees 2 Sam 7 as standing behind the phrase “sure house”: God promises to establish David’s house (dynasty) and through his son to build a house (Temple). Whether Klinzing is correct is difficult to say.(85) Regardless, it is clear that God provided atonement for these pristine members. Those who hold fast to the “sure house,” whose iniquity has been atoned, are extended the assurance of “eternal life” and all the glory of Adam is theirs (CD 3.19–20).(86) Another reference to God’s atoning of the founding members occurs in CD 4.6b–7a: “Those whom God atoned.” The possibility of atonement granted to the original members of the community is extended to any Jew who joins the community. Until the time set by God, the sins of any Jew who enters the covenant will be atoned: “Just as the covenant that God established with the first ones to atone for their iniquities, so also God will atone for them” (CD 4.9–10).

The discussion of the man who refuses to enter the covenant in the Rule of the Community sheds further light on the community’s understanding of atonement as consequent upon entering the community. This one is said to be unable to repent, in order that he might live (1QS 3.1). The same “cannot be purified by atonement” (1QS 3.4). Implicit is the assumption that this benefit can only be procured as a result of entering the renewed covenant, which is functionally equivalent to joining the community. To enter the community is to repent, which explains why the one who refuses to enter is said to be unable to repent; repentance then brings atonement (and the possibility of ritual purity).(87)

Somewhat differently, according to 1QS 5–7, atonement for the new members of the community originates with the community itself. In this section, it is said of the men of the community (1QS 5.1)—described as those who have devoted themselves to repenting of evil—that they are “to atone for all those who are resolved,” meaning that they vicariously atone for those who join the community for the purpose of obeying the Law perfectly (1QS 5.6). It is not specified by which means they will do this, nor why the men of the community are doing the atoning and not God. (In 4QSb and 4QSd, the infinitive construct "to atone . . ." does not occur.) Possibly, the atonement takes place vicariously through the community’s collective repentance.(88) On this interpretation, it is not the initiate’s repentance that atones, but the repentance of those who preceded him into the community. As Leaney expresses it, “It is a cleansing community which purifies those who join it by absorbing them into its life.”(89) (Of course, there could be no atonement without the repentance of the initiate.) Similarly, the community is the means of ritual purity, but only those who have “repented of their wickedness” will benefit from the community’s ritual cleansing with water (1QS 5.13–14).

The community’s atoning function is described elsewhere in the Rule of the Community. It is said that in the council of the community there exists twelve men and three priests; this seems to be an elite or representative group of men. The symbolism of this group is obvious: the twelve men represent the twelve tribes of Israel and the three priests the three Levitical clans. Unfortunately, there appears to be only one other reference to this group of fifteen, merely in passing, so that it is impossible to determine its function in relation to the community’s hierarchy (4Q265 frg. 2, col. 2.8b–9).(90) This representative fifteen, being perfect in the Law, among other things, is “to pay for iniquity by the practice of justice and suffering affliction” (1QS 8.3b–4a). The phrase “to pay for iniquity” probably derives from Lev 26:41, 43 (see Isa 40:2), referring to the nation’s exile as payment or punishment for its iniquity. In addition, according to Lev 26:40–42, the nation must confess and repent of its sins in exile before God can be merciful to it once again for the sake of the patriarchs. If so, the fifteen understood themselves on analogy with the nation, so that their own suffering, for whatever reason, and their “practice of justice,” which is the result of their repentance, pay for iniquity.(91) In this way, they remove their own guilt and provide for Israel the possibility of its vicarious removal.

The text continues by affirming that, when these exist in Israel, the council of the community will be established in truth (1QS 8:4b–5a). Whether the word “these” refers to these things—the functions of the group of fifteen—or these men—the group of fifteen itself—is not clear. The council of the community is then said to be chosen “to atone for the land and repay the wicked their reward” (1QS 8.6b–7a).(92) How this atonement of the land differs from the paying for iniquity effected by the fifteen (1QS 8.3) is not clear. Given the varied and imprecise use of vocabulary relating to the removal of guilt in the Hebrew Bible and second-Temple texts, it is arguable that there are no semantic distinctions to be made. Suffice it to say that, once established, the community serves to bring the possibility of the removal of guilt to the nation. Of course, this possibility is actualized only by entering into the community. In a superscription connected with 1QS 8.10, the council of the community is again said to atone for the land and execute judgment: “They will be accepted to atone for the land and to decide judgment over wickedness.”

That the community has an atoning function is also implied in 1QS 9.3–4: “When these exist in Israel . . . they shall atone for the guilt of transgression and the unfaithfulness of sin to obtain favor for the land without the flesh of burnt offerings and the fat of sacrifice.” The antecedent of “these” is not clear; it may mean “these things” or “these men.” In any case, the general meaning is that, by means of the establishment of the community, the possibility of atonement independent of the Temple sacrifices is established. In place of sacrifices, the community offers to God “the proper offerings of the lips” and “the perfection of way” (1QS 9.4b–5a), which effect atonement for the community. The former seems to refer to prayer or praise, while the latter means obedience to the Law.(93)

Since the community functions to atone for the land, it is not surprising that it is described using Temple imagery.(94) In 1QS 8.5b–6a, the council of the community is said to be “a holy house for Israel and an assembly of the holy of holies for Aaron.” Similarly, in 1QS 8.8b–9a, the community is described as “a dwelling of the holy of holies for Aaron . . . offering up a soothing odor,” and a “house of perfection and truth in Israel.” Finally, in 1QS 9.6 the community is again described as “a holy house for Aaron, for the community of the holy of holies, and a house of the community for Israel.” The phrases “holy of holies,” “holy house,” and even simply “house” represent the application of Temple terminology to the community. In these passages, the priests in the community are associated with the holy of holies and the lay membership with the Temple in general. It seems that, insofar as it atones for the sins of its members, the community represents for its lay and priestly components a substitute for the Temple.(95) It should also be noted that in 1QS 11.8 the community is described as “house of holiness,” possibly implying that the community is the conduit through which God’s mercy is mediated insofar as it has a cultic function.(96)

B. Removal of Guilt Subsequent to Entry into Community

It also seems that the possibility of the removal of guilt is not just a one-time occurrence realized upon entrance into the community but is available in perpetuum. There is no doubt that members of the community were expected to have repented, to have turned from sin to perfect obedience to the Law as interpreted by the community. Prospective members were examined for their sincerity and suitability and, once admitted, were examined annually and ranked according to their understanding and obedience. Yet, it is clear that the community cannot realistically expect perfect obedience, since only at the eschaton would the possibility of sin be removed (1QS 3.21–23; 4.18–26). The legislation found in the Community Rule and Damascus Document presupposes an imperfect membership. Sometimes members of the community sinned, albeit uncharacteristically, and were disciplined accordingly; such transgressors needed a means of the removal of their guilt. So long as those violations were not liable to permanent expulsion, the violators were restored and presumably their guilt was removed in the process. This aspect of Qumran theology, however, is not developed at all; rather, what is stressed is that the members are or at least are expected to be perfectly obedient to the Law. Nevertheless, there is evidence that the removal of guilt was available to the otherwise characteristically righteous members of the community.

In the legislation found in 1QS 8.16b–19 a man who strays “with a high hand” from any of the commandments is not without hope (but see the legislation in 1QS 8.20–9.2). To stray “with a high hand” is to sin intentionally and knowingly (see 1QS 7.3 and 9.1). Although to sin in this way is serious, the violator can still be restored. When such a man has given evidence by his behavior that he has repented (“until his works have become purified from all deceit by walking with those perfect of way”), he can become a full member of the community again; at this time he can eat of the pure meal (“touch the purity”) and be part of the community’s counsel sessions. In other words, the errant member is put on probation until he has proven himself to be obedient or “perfect of the way.”(97) Presumably, his restoration includes the removal of his guilt by some means, unless his repentance alone suffices to remove his guilt.

Similarly, in the Collection of Laws in the Damascus Document (CD 15–16; 9–14) restoration for those members who transgress the Law is possible. Although in some cases disobedience brings irreversible punitive measures against the perpetrator, not every sin has such dire consequences. The one who profanes the Sabbath or the festivals is not to be expelled, but rehabilitated: “For watching over him belongs to the sons of men; if he is healed from it, they shall watch over him for seven years, and after this he shall return to the community” (CD 12.4b–6a). (See similar disciplinary measures in 4QDamascus Document [4Q267 frg. 18, col. 4].) Interestingly, in CD 10.3, it is stipulated that no man who sins intentionally shall be believed as a witness unless he repents. What is implied is that the guilt resulting from intentional sins, such as violating the Sabbath, can be removed on the condition of repentance. (If so, then the community was more lenient than the Torah itself would allow.)

In the section of the Damascus Document that concerns the expulsion ceremony, in addition to the unrepentant transgressor, the one who sins unintentionally is also considered (4Q266 frg. 11; 4Q270 frg. 7, cols. 1–2).(98) The member of the community who sins unintentionally is characterized by being willing to accept the discipline of the community: “And he shall accept his judgment with good will” (4Q266 frg. 11.1). As Moses specifies, such a person is to bring his sin offering or guilt offering ; presumably, they are to bring these sacrifices to the Temple, but only when the Temple is no longer defiled. Whether by unintentional sins is meant uncharacteristic sins, as opposed to truly unknown sins, is not clear. Given the context, however, the phrase could mean sins of which the perpetrator has repented and so mean uncharacteristic sins. (The assumption is that a sin for which one repents is uncharacteristic.) Three passages from scripture are then quoted, seemingly for the purpose of indicating that only the members of the community truly repent of their unintentional sins and therefore receive atonement. The first, from Lev 26:31, speaks of how God will not accept sacrifices from the nation when disobedient. The other two quotations are admonitions to genuine repentance: “Tear your hearts and not your clothes” (Joel 2:13) and “To return to God in tears and in fasting” (Joel 2:12). These three passages appear to have in view unrepentant Jews, those outside of the community. The point is that, because they do not truly repent, their guilt cannot be removed. Conversely, those within the community do truly repent and so receive atonement. This section concludes by affirming that the person who “despises these regulations in accordance with all the precepts found in the Law of Moses” will not be included among the sons of truth. In other words, no one who rejects the community’s interpretation of the Law can remain in the community. Such a one is said to be in a state of rebellion (4Q266 frg. 11.5–8).

According to the Halakhic Letter, although he reckons a Jew as having righteousness on the basis of obedience to the Law correctly interpreted, God also provides the possibility of forgiveness to the righteous. It may seem strange that the righteous need forgiveness, but this becomes understandable when it is realized that to qualify as being righteous does not require perfect obedience. The author reminds his reader of the benefits that come from obedience to the Law: “Remember the kings of Israel, and understand their works. Whoever of them feared the Law was rescued from afflictions, and those who sou[gh]t the Law [were forgiven] their sins. Remember David. He was a man of pious deeds, and he also was rescued from many afflictions and it was forgiven him” (C 23b–26a). A causal connection is made between obedience to the Law and being rescued from affliction and forgiven for sins. The fact that David was forgiven for the sins of adultery and murder that should have resulted in his extirpation is interpreted to mean that God forgave David because of his past record of obedience. What the author is describing is the preferential treatment given to the righteous: God will both rescue them from misfortune and forgive their occasional and uncharacteristic transgressions of the Law. What applies to David is assumed to apply to all the righteous.

It is probable that the Qumran community observed the Day of Atonement, called the “day of fasting” in CD 6.18–19, even without access to the Temple. There is evidence that the community observed the Day of Atonement according to its own calendar (1QpHab 11.5–8; CD 6.19). (How this might be done without access to the Temple is not explained.) Whether the observance of the Day of Atonement was understood as providing atonement for the community is not stated, but a Day of Atonement in which fasting and contrition replaced sacrifice could have provided the community with the possibility of annual atonement. (For a reference to the community’s celebration of the Day of Atonement, see 1QpHab 11.5-8.) This opportunity would endure until the eschaton when, because to sin would no longer be a possibility, the Day of Atonement would no longer be necessary. According to 11QMelchizedek (2.8) and CD 20.33b–34 the members of the community would receive an eschatological atonement.

If the community observed the Day of Atonement, then prayer to be offered on the Day of Atonement (“Prayer for the Day of Atonement” found in Festival Prayers may have been part of a ritual by which the guilt of its membership was removed on an annual basis (1Q34 frgs. 1–2, col. 1.6–7). Those who recite this prayer begin by petitioning God, “Remember . . . the feast of your compassion and the time of the return” (4Q508 frg. 2.1–2). The petitioner asks God to remember the provision for atonement that he established for them, which he calls an “eternal statute.”(99) Not to read too much into this single line, it seems that the Day of Atonement was understood as an annual opportunity of atonement on the condition of repentance. This is why the day is called “the time of return.” To participate in and thereby benefit from the Day of Atonement requires fasting: “For you have established it for us as a festival of fasting (4Q508 frg. 2.3; see CD 6.19). 4Q508 frg. 39 “And we lived with a pain heart [during] the d[ay]” may be another fragment from the same prayer.(100) If so, then a requirement of participation in the Day of Atonement was lamenting one’s sins committed over the past year. Whether all sins could potentially be atoned or whether there were some exceptions is not specified.(101)

1.3. Conclusion

The result of striking a compromise between God as righteous judge and as merciful by Second-Temple Judaism was a de facto synergistic soteriology. Obedience to the Law is required of all Jews, and represents their contribution to achieving the goal of eschatological salvation. God as righteous judge will declare those who have obeyed the Law to be worthy of the ultimate reward, some form of eternal life. Nevertheless, perfect obedience is not required as a condition of eschatological salvation, because God as merciful will remove the guilt of those who have transgressed the Law. The removal of guilt is God’s contribution to the obtaining of eschatological salvation. This is the religious-historical context against which one must interpret Paul’s soteriology.

Footnotes

(1) See B.D. Smith, The Tension between God as Righteous Judge and as Merciful in Early Judaism.

(2) Exod 34:6-7: ‘Yahweh, Yahweh God, compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in lovingkindness and truth, who keeps lovingkindness for thousands, who forgives iniquity, transgression and sin; yet he will by no means leave the guilty unpunished, visiting the iniquity of fathers on the children and on the grandchildren to the third and fourth generations.

(3) T. Eskola, Theodicy and Predestination in Pauline Soteriology (WUNT 2d. s. 100; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1998) chap. 1. Eskola argues against Sanders that early Judaism was characterized by a synergistic soteriology, but does not go into detail concerning how the concepts of human freedom and moral responsibility is brought together with God’s mercy. In fact, the two views of how God relates to human beings are actually incompatible.

(4) Josephus explains that (most) Jews in his day believed in a post-mortem reward for obeying the Law: "However, the reward for such as live exactly according to the laws is not silver or gold; it is not a garland of olive branches or of small age, nor any such public sign of commendation; but every good man has his own conscience bearing witness to himself, and by virtue of our legislator‘s prophetic spirit, and of the firm security God himself affords such a one, he believes that God hath made this grant to those that observe these laws, even though they be obliged readily to die for them, that they shall come into being again, and at a certain revolution of things shall receive a better life than they had enjoyed before" (Apion 2.217-18).

(5) On the importance of obedience to the Law as a condition of salvation, see P. Garnet, "Qumran Light on Pauline Soteriology," Pauline Studies. Essays Presented to F. F. Bruce on His 70th Birthday, 19-32.

(6) A. Das recognizes the tension in early Judaism between judgment according to works and divine mercy (Paul, the Law and the Covenant [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2001] 12-69. Das writes, "God‘s forgiving grace and the strict demand of the law represent two opposing poles of Jewish thought that persisted in logical tension" (44). Contrary to Das, in my assessment, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch do not differ qualitatively from second-Temple Jewish texts. See also K. Snodgrass, "Justification by Grace-To the Doers: An Analysis of the Place of Romans 2 in the Theology of Paul," NTS 32 (1986) 72-93; D. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996) 211-17; T. Eskola, Theodicy and Predestination in Pauline Soteriology, chap. 1.S. J. Gathercole, Where is Boasting? Early Jewish Soteriology and Paul’s Response in Romans 1-5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002) 161-94.>

(7) See L. Hartman’s description of the righteous and the wicked in 1 En 1-5 (Asking for a Meaning [ConB 12; Lund: Gleerup, 1979] 130-38).

(8) G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001) 148.

(9) Hartman, Asking for a Meaning, 25, 32-38, 44-48, 132-36; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 147-48.

(10) M. Black, The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch (SVTP Septimum; Leiden: Brill, 1985) 114.

(11) See E. Puech, "4Q525 et les périopes des beatitudes en Sira et Matthieu," RB 98 (1991) 80-106; J. H. Charlesworth, "The Qumran Beatitudes (4Q525) and the New Testament (MT 5:3-11; LK 6:20-26)," RHPR 80 (2000) 13-35, esp. 19; S. Crawford, "Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran," DSD 5 (1998) 355-66, esp. 364-66.

(12) The non-eschatological use of the idiom "to inherit glory" occurs in Prov 3:35; Sir 37:26 (see 1 Sam 2:8 "to inherit a seat of honor").

(13) In 1QS 4.7b-8, the eschatological reward of the righteous is also said to consist of "a crown of glory together with a garment of honor in eternal light." There are also several references to the eschatological restoration of the lost glory of Adam. The members of the Qumran community are also destined to inherit all the glory of Adam (1QS 3.19-20; 4.23a; CD 3.20; 1QHa 4[17].15). Similarly, in Ps. Sol. 2:31, the author refers to God’s raising him up to glory. Finally, the apostle Paul often refers to eschatological salvation as "glory."

(14) See the eschatological use of "peace" in 1 En 1:8; 5:4-7, "peace without end" in 1QH 7.20 [15.16] and "age of peace" in 4Q215.

(15) See "elect of God" in 1QpHab 10.13; 4QpPsa 4.14 and "people of the elect of heaven" in 1QM 12.5 (see also 1QH 10.13; 4Q215a frg. 1, col. 2.2).

(16) S. J. Gathercole, Where is Boasting? Early Jewish Soteriology and Paul’s Response in Romans 1-5 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002) 65; P. Sprinkle, Law and Life: The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation (WUNT 2/241; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2008) 93-100.

(17) G. Maier, Mensch und freier Wille (WUNT 12; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1971) 293-95; J. Schüpphaus, Die Psalmen Salomos: Ein Zeugnis Jerusalemer Theologie und Frömmigkeit in der Mitte des vorchristlichen Jahrhunderts (ALGHJ 7; Leiden: Brill, 1977) 92-94.

(18) E. Puech, La croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, resurrection, vie éternelle, vol. 1, La resurrection des morts et le contexte scripturaire (2 vols.; EB, n.s., 21; Paris: Libraire LeCoffre, 1993) 126.

(19) Sprinkle, Law and Life: The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation, 115-29. Occasional reference is made in LAB to chambers (promptuariae) in which the disembodied souls of the dead are kept (15:5; 32:13). The more frequent way of expressing the state of the dead is to describe them as sleeping (see Stemberger, Der Leib der Auferstehung, 101-103).

(20) Stemberger, Der Leib der Auferstehung, 83-84; Cavallin, Life After Death, 80-85; Aalen, Heilsverlangen und Heilsverwirklichung, 42-46.

(21) P-M. Bogaert, L’Apocalypse de Baruch: Introduction, traduction du syriaque et commentaire (SC 144, 145; 2 vols.; Paris: Cerf, 1969) 2.67; F. Murphy, The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch (SBLDS 78; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985) 102-103.

(22) See R. H. Charles, Apocalypse of Baruch (London: Black, 1896) 95; Murphy, The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch, 64-66.

(23) T. Willett, Eschatology in the Theodicies of 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra (JSPSS 4; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989) 100.

(24) W. Harnisch, Verhängnis und Verheißung der Geschichte. Untersuchungen zum Zeit- und Geschichteverständnis im 4 Esra und in der syr. Baruchapocalypse (FRLANT 97; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969) 226-28; Murphy, The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch, 51-52.

(25) Harnisch, Verhängnis und Verheißung der Geschichte, 180-88.

(26) See Murphy’s discussion of "the two-world concept" (The Structure and Meaning of Second Baruch, 37-67). See also Harnisch, Verhängnis und Verheißung der Geschichte, 106-42.

(27) In 1 En 22:2b, Enoch remarks that the four pits are "deep and dark to view," immediately after he observed that only three pits were dark and the fourth was bright (22:2a). M-T. Wacker argues plausibly that this discrepancy is to be explained on the assumption that originally the tradition neither identified four pits nor differentiated their occupants according to their moral states and eschatological destinies. Rather, this hypothetical earlier version merely spoke of pits in general, where all the dead reside irrespective of their moral condition, in continuity with the biblical concept of Sheol (Weltordnung und Gericht. Studien zu 1 Henoch 22 [FB 45; Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1982] 122-31). See Wacker’s description of Sheol (179-80).

(28) Wacker, Weltordnung und Gericht, 279-80.

(29) Stemberger, Der Leib der Auferstehung, 37-38.

(30) There is a parallel statement in 1 En 91:10, but there is evidence that this passage was not part of the original Aramaic version (see 4QEn-g frg. 1, col. 2.13-17) (Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 413).

(31) Stemberger doubts whether 1 En 91:10; 92:3-4 refer to the awakening of the righteous in the sense of their bodily resurrection (Der Leib der Auferstehung, 40-44).

(32) G. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism (HTS 26; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972) 112-30; see P. Volz, Die Eschatologie der jüdischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1966) 20, 418; Cavallin, Life After Death, 44. J. Collins argues convincingly that the references to resurrected martyrs as shining like the firmament and as being like stars are references to an angelic type of existence, since angels are often represented by the stars and heavenly bodies (see Dan 8:10) ("Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death," CBQ 36 [1974] 21-43, esp. 33-35; id., "The Son of Man and the Saints of the Most High in the Book of Daniel," JBL 93 [1974] 50-66; id., The Apocalyptic Imagination (2d ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999) 112-13). The closest parallel to Dan 12:3 is 1 En 104:2, 6 (see also Mark 12:25; 1 En 39:5).

(33) Aalen argues that neither Dan 12:3 nor 1 En 104:2 says anything about a heavenly exaltation of the righteous to an angelic status (He rejects 1 En 104:4 as secondary). Rather what is being described is a transformed existence on earth (Heilsverlangen und Heilsverwirklichung, 9-14; 23-25). In Dan 12:3, to say that "those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the firmament" and "those who lead many to righteousness will shine like the stars" is only to compare the eschatological existence of the righteous to the brilliance of the heavenly bodies, which symbolizes an eschatological participation in the glory of God, as in Isa 60:1-3, 19 and 24:3. It is not a statement that they will be removed to heaven. The same then is true of those texts that are probably dependent on Dan 12:3, such as 4 Ezra 7:97, 125; 4 Macc 17:5; LAB 33:5, and, of course 1 En 104:2 (see also 4Q548 frg. 1, col. 2.9b-10a). According to Aalen, in 1 En 104:2, the "Ort der Seligkeit" of the righteous in not heaven, but earth (24). He believes that the Greek version preserves the more original text, so that the righteous are only said to "shine like the lights of heaven" and that to them "the portals of heaven will be opened" (1 En 104:2). According to him, neither description, unlike what is said in 1 En 104:4, should be interpreted to mean that the righteous will assume an angelic type of existence in heaven. It seems, however, that the distinction between an angelic type of existence and an eschatological corporeal existence is negligible, since the latter will be so unlike pre-eschatological corporeal existence that the two can scarcely be equated and contrasted with an angelic type of existence.

(34) M. Testuz, Les ideés religieuses du livre des Jubilés (Geneva: E. Droz; Paris: Minard, 1960) 171; Volz, Die Eschatologie der jüdischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, 27-30; Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism, 31-33; Cavallin, Life After Death, 38; Puech, La croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, resurrection, vie éternelle, vol. 1, La resurrection des morts et le contexte scripturaire, 103-104.

(35) Aalen agrees that Jub. 23:30-31 refers to martyrs who, existing in a disembodied, post-mortem state, are aware of and rejoice in the eschatological victory on earth. He denies, however, that this necessarily means that they are in heaven. He writes, "Der Text enthält nichts, was auf ein himmlisches oder transzendentes Leben der Verstorbenen hinweisen könnte" (Heilsverlangen und Heilsverwirklichung, 18). If so, then where they are is difficult to determine, because they are not on the earth and not in Sheol (since Sheol is the place of judgment).

(36) Six copies of the text known as 4QPseudo-Ezekiel were found in cave four at Qumran (4Q385; 386; 385b, 388, 385c, 391). The six fragments belonging to 4Q385 have overlaps with 4Q386 and 4Q388, and the three texts together represent six successive columns, although in a poor state of preservation. Five of the six copies of 4QPseudo-Ezekiel (4Q385; 386, 385b, 388, 385c) date from the second half of the first century BCE. 4Q391, however, dates from a century earlier, to the latter part of the second century BCE; this provides a terminus ad quem for the composition of 4QPseudo-Ezekiel, assuming that 4Q391 is indeed a copy of this text. If the text was composed in the middle of the second century BCE or earlier, it is probable that 4Q386 frg. 1, cols. 2-3 describes Jewish suffering experienced during the reign of Antiochus IV. The man identified as "a son of Belial," who schemes to oppress God’s people, could easily be Antiochus IV (4Q386 frg. 1, col. 2.3). (see D. Dimant, "Pseudo-Ezekiel," Qumran Cave 4 XXI: Parabiblical Texts, Part 4: Pseudo-Prophetic Texts [Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 30; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001] 5-88, esp. 16.

(37) Puech, La croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, resurrection, vie éternelle, vol. 1, La resurrection des morts et le contexte scripturaire, 612-13.

(38) Dimant, "Pseudo-Ezekiel", 31-37; Puech, La croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, resurrection, vie éternelle, vol. 1, La resurrection des morts et le contexte scripturaire, 612-14.

(39) Cavallin, Life After Death, 80-81.

(40) Puech, Puech, La croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, resurrection, vie éternelle, vol. 1, La resurrection des morts et le contexte scripturaire, 139.

(41) For a summary and updated review of the evidence, see F. Garcia Martinez, "The History of the Qumran Community in the Light of Recently Available Texts," Qumran between the Old and New Testaments (ed. F. Cryer and T. Thompson; JSOTSS 290; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998) 194-216.

(42) H. W. Kuhn, Enderwartung und Gegenwärtiges Heil. Untersuchungen zu den Gemeindeleidern von Qumran (SUNT 4; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966) 105-106.

(43) S. Holm-Nielsen finds parallels in Jub. 5:13-14, 23, 32; 30:22; 36:10; 1 En 103:2-3 (Hodayot: Psalms from Qumran [ATD 2; Aarhus: Universitetforlaget, 1960] 238).

(44) Delcor, Les Hymnes de Qumran, 86-88.

(45) Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism, 156-67. Nickelsburg points out that nothing is said about the eternal fate of the righteous who have already died (165). See H. Cavallin, Life After Death, 60-62.

(46) Josephus, or his source on the Essenes, reports that the Essenes believed that "for the virtuous souls there is reserved an abode beyond the ocean, a place which is not oppressed by rain or snow or heat, but is refreshed by the ever gentle breeze of the west wind coming in from the ocean; while they relegate the base souls to a murky and tempestuous dungeon, big with never-ending punishments" (War 2.155).

(47) K. Elliger, Studien zum Habakuk-Kommentar vom Toten Meer (BHT 15; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1953) 196.

(48) J. Murphy-O’Connor, "A Literary Analysis of Damascus Document XIX, 33-XX, 34," RB 79 (1972) 544-64, esp. 551-52.

(49) M. A. Knibb, The Qumran Community (CCWJCW 2; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987)74.

(50) J. Murphy-O’Connor, "A Literary Analysis of Damascus Document XIX, 33-XX, 34," RB 79 (1972) 544-64, esp. 551-52.

(51) See J. Carmignac, "La future intervention de Dieu selon la pensée de Qumrân," Qumrân, sa piété, sa théologie et son milieu (ed. M. Delcor; BETL 46; Paris-Gembloux: Duculot, 1978) 219-29.

(52) See S. J. Gathercole, Where is Boasting? Early Jewish Soteriology and Paul’s Response in Romans 1-5, 100-102.

(53) See P. Davies, The Damascus Covenant (JSOTSS 25; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1982) 81-85.

(54) Knibb, The Qumran Community, 34-35. It has been suggested that the phrase "which a man must do in order to live by them" is a later interpolation into the text. (J. Murphy-O’Connor, "An Essene Missionary Document? CD II, 14-VI, 1," RB 77 [1970] 201-29, esp. 208).

(55) J. Baumgarten, Qumran Cave 4. XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266-273) (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 18; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) 76-78; C. Hempel, The Laws of the Damascus Document: Sources, Tradition and Redaction (STDJ 29; Leiden: Brill, 1998) 175-85.

(56) Only in Ps 119:165 do the terms "Law" (twrh) and "peace" (šlwm) occur together: "Great peace is to those who love your Law." The terms "peace and truth" occur together with a similar soteriological meaning in 4Q548 frg. 1, col. 2.12. See also "peace" in 1QS 4.7; 1QH 7.20 [15.16]; 17[9].33-34. Truth is an ambiguous term in the Qumran sectarian writings, but seems to be used with a soteriological sense in 1QS 3.7; 4.19-20; 9.3; 1QH-a 8.24 [16.16]; 14 [6].8-9; 15[7].14, 30; 19[9].9, 11. This passage is also reminiscent of Jer 33:6 "I will reveal to them abundance of peace and truth," which may have influenced the author.

(57) The author may be influenced by Gen 15:6 "And it was reckoned to him as righteousness" or Ps 106:31 "And this has been reckoned to him as righteousness." E. Qimron and J. Strugnell suggest that the clause may be influenced by Deut 6:24-25 or Deut 12:28 because of the occurrence of twb and yšr in the latter (Qumran Cave 4: V, Miqsat Ma’Ase Ha-Tora [Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 10; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994], 3-40, esp. 63). M. Bernstein thinks that Deut 6:18 is more likely than Deut 12:28 to be a model for this passage in the Halakhic Letter ("The Employment and Interpretation of Scripture in 4QMMT: Preliminary Observations," Reading 4QMMT: New Perspectives on Qumran Law and History [ed. J. Kampen and M. Bernstein; SBLSS 2; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996] 29-51).

(58) R. Bell, No one seeks for God (WUNT 106; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1998) 232-33.

(59) M. Abegg insists that 4QMMT should not be used to prove that the Qumran community believed in a "’works earn righteousness’ religion" ("4QMMT C 27, 31 and ’Works Righteousness’," DSD 6 [1999] 139-47, esp. 144). Rather, he supports Sanders’ interpretation of ancient Judaism as a covenantal nomism. The better interpretation of the data recognizes that both views are found in the Qumran sectarian writings.

(60) See J. Haspecker, Gottesfurcht bei Jesus Sirach (AnBib 30; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1967) 234-62.

(61) See the discussion in M. Vogel, "Tempel und Tempelkult in Pseudo-Philos Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum," Gemeinde ohne Tempel / Community without Temple (ed. B. Ego, A. Lange and P. Pilhofer; WUNT 118; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1999) 251-63.

(62) See Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 338-41.

(63) See Maier, Mensch und freier Wille, 82-83.

(64) Winninge calls them by the paradoxical term the "sinfully righteous" (Sinners and the Righteous, 131-34).

(65) See E. Sjöberg, Gott und Sünder im palästinischen Judentum (BWANT 79. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1938) 207-208; Becker, Das Heil Gottes, 30-32; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 387-409; Schüpphaus, Die Psalmen Salomos, 86-92.

(66) See W. Lane, "Paul’s Legacy from Pharisaism: Light from the Psalms of Solomon," ConJ (1982) 130-38.

(67) Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous, 40.

(68) Yet, see the use of the noun hamartia in Pss. Sol. 9:6; 10:1; 16:7 and the verb hamartanein in Pss. Sol. 5:6; 9:7; 16:11 with respect to the righteous. Thus it is possible that hamartia in Ps. Sol. 3:10 is synonymous with paraptôma and agnoia. It should be noted, however, that the righteous are never called "sinners" (hamartôloi), even though they "sin" (hamartanein).

(69) Contrary to Maier, agnoia probably does not mean exclusively unknown sins (Mensch und freier Wille, 308-309). Schüpphaus does not really explain in what sense the sins of the righteous are unintentional. He seems to hold that somehow because of "ihres positiven grundverhaltens Gott gegenüber" the righteous do not sin intentionally, but does not explain why (Die Psalmen Salomos, 102 n. 253).

(70) D. Lührmann, "Paul and the Pharisaic Tradition," JSNT 36 (1989) 75-94, esp. 81-84.

(71) Winninge, Sinners and the Righteous, 133-34; see P. N. Franklyn, "The Cultic and Pious Climax of Eschatology in the Psalms of Solomon," JSJ 18 (1987) 1-17.

(72) Maier, Mensch und freier Wille, 307-309; 318-19; K. T. Kleinknecht, Der leidende Gerechtfertigte. Die alttestamentlich-jüdische Tradition vom ’leidenden Gerechte’ und ihre Rezeption bei Paulus (WUNT 2d s. 13; 2d ed.; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1988) 110-15.

(73) Maier, Mensch und freier Wille, 313-21.

(74) J. Endres points out that, in addition to his repentance, two other reasons are cited for the fact that Judah did not die for his sin. First, he was obedient to Abraham’s commandment insofar as he sought to burn Tamar with fire. Second, Tamar had not actually had sexual relations with either of Judah’s sons, so that it could be questioned whether legally she was Judah’s daughter-in-law (Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees [CBQMS 18; Washington, D.C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987] 187).

(75) See P. Garnet, Salvation and Atonement in the Qumran Scrolls (WUNT 2d s. 3; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1977) 9-11.

(76) W. Schniedewind argues that the Prayer of Manasseh preserved in 4Q381 predates the account of Mannaseh’s repentance in 2 Chronicles, unlike the Greek Prayer of Manasseh ("A Qumran Fragment of the Ancient ’Prayer of Manasseh’?" ZAW 108 [1996] 105-107). He reaches this conclusion principally because "There is no dependence on biblical literature in general or II Chr 33 in particular in the Qumran prayer" (105). This is consistent with a dating of the collection of psalms to which the Prayer of Manasseh belongs to the Persian or early Hellenistic period.

(77) E. Schuller, Non-Canonical Psalms from Qumran (HSS 28; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986) 161-62.

(78) Sanders claims wrongly that the depiction of God as merciful in 4 Ezra 7:132-40 is actually repudiated by the angel in 4 Ezra 8:1-3, who represents the author’s theological position (Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 415; see 409-18).

(79) 4 Ezra 7:132-40 probably represents a midrash on Exod 34:6-7 (A. Thompson, Responsibility for Evil in the Theodicy of IV Ezra [SBLDS 29; Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977] 202-203).

(80) J. VanderKam, "The Angel Story in the Book of Jubilees," Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseuepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. E. Chazon and M. Stone; STDJ 31; Leiden: Brill, 1999) 151-70, esp. 163-64.

(81) K. Berger, Das Buch der Jubiläen (JSHRZ II/3; Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1981) 394-95. Philo holds that the Day of Atonement covers both unintentional and intentional sins (Spec. leg., 2.32; 193).

(82) See Eskola, Theodicy and Predestination in Pauline Soteriology, 87-93.

(83) A. Lange, Weisheit und Prädestination (STDJ 28; Leiden: Brill, 1995) 257.

(84) G. Klinzing, Die Umdeutung des Kultus in der Qumrangemeinde und im Neuen Testament (SUNT 7; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971) 75-80.

(85) The alternative would be to take the phrase "And he built them a sure house" to be an allusion to 1 Sam 2:35. In the same way that the house of Eli was replaced by that of Zaddok, so God replaces the nation of Israel with a believing minority from within the nation, who, by the way, claimed continuity with the Zaddokite priesthood (Knibb, The Qumran Community, 35; see also Davies, The Damascus Document, 90-91).

(86) H. Lichtenberger, Studien zum Menschenbild in Texten der Qumrangemeinde (SUNT 15; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980) 152.

(87) For a discussion of 1QS 3.4-12, see Klinzing, Die Umdeutung des Kultus in der Qumrangemeinde und im Neuen Testament, 99-102.

(88) See Knibb, The Qumran Community, 107; Garnet, Salvation and Atonement in the Qumran Scrolls, 64.

(89) Leaney, The Rule of Qumran and its Meaning, 168.

(90) In 4Q265 frg. 2. col. 2.8b-9, the fifteen man council of the community is described as "[chosen of] (God’s) grace, a soothing odor," and said "to atone for the land from al[l sin]" (see 1QS 5.6; 8.5-12). Since it is described with cultic imagery as a "soothing odor," it is clear that these representative fifteen function as a replacement for the Temple, providing the possibility of atonement. The land for which the council of the community atones, removing all sin, probably means the inhabitants of the land, rather than the land itself, so that these men function as the council of the community to bring the possibility of atonement to individual Jews. Of course, this possibility is actualized by entering into the covenant, i.e., joining the community.

(91) Leaney, The Rule of Qumran and Its Meaning, 213-14; Wernberg-Møller, The Manual of Discipline, 122-26; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 301-302; Knibb, The Qumran Community, 129-32.

(92) It is probable that the subject of "atone" is no longer the fifteen, but the community as a whole, the "council of the community" (Klinzing, Die Umdeutung des Kultus in der Qumrangemeinde und im Neuen Testament, 50-60; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 301).

(93) Knibb, The Qumran Community, 138-39; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 299-300; Klinzing, Die Umdeutung des Kultus in der Qumrangemeinde und im Neuen Testament, 64-66.

(94) See L. Schiffman, "Community Without Temple: The Qumran Community’s Withdrawal from the Jerusalem Temple," Gemeinde ohne Tempel / Community without Temple (ed. B. Ego, A. Lange and P. Pilhofer; WUNT 118; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1999) 267-84.

(95) B. Gärtner, The Temple and the Community in Qumran and the New Testament (SNTSMS 1; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965) 22-30, 44-46.

(96) Klinzing, Die Umdeutung des Kultus in der Qumrangemeinde und im Neuen Testament, 74-75.

(97) Leaney, The Rule of Qumran and its Meaning, 224.

(98) Baumgarten, Qumran Cave 4. XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266-273) (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 18) 76-78; Hempel, The Laws of the Damascus Document, 175-85; P. Sprinkle, Law and Life: The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation (WUNT 2/241; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2008) 68-76.

(99) See B. Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry (STDJ 12; Leiden: Brill, 1994) 99-100.

(100) Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry, 100.

(101) Nitzan’s claim that doing the commandments relating to the Day of Atonement are "meritorious acts" to which God responds by fulfilling his promise of atonement exceeds the evidence (Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry, 99-101). Meeting a condition for the reception of divine mercy is not the same as performing a meritorious act, in the sense of earning God’s favor.

Ahead to Part Two: Paul’s Rejection of Jewish Synergistic Soteriology

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